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PETERSON:  AMERICAN    INDIAN    TOMAHAWKS 


Frontispiece 


AN    EXAMPLE  OF  A  PIPE    TOMAHAWK  WITH    EXTREMELY    ELABORATE    DECORATION 

{see  No.  i6i) 


CONTRIBUTIONS  FROM  THE 

MUSEUM  OF  THE  AMERICAN  INDIAN 

HEYE  FOUNDATION 

Vol.  XIX 


AMERICAN  INDIAN  TOMAHAWKS 


by  HAROLD  L  PETERSON 


With  an  Appendix  -. 

THE  BLACKSMITH  SHOP 
by  MILFORD  G.  CHANDLER 


MUSEUM  OF  THE  AMERICAN  INDIAN 

HEYE  FOUNDATION 

1971 


First  published  in  1965 
Revised  Edition  197 1 


Library  of  Congress  Catalogue  card  number  73-125345 

Printed  in  Germany  at  J.  J.  Augustin,  Gliickstadt 

Price:  $10.00 


APR  2  y  '^uio 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Illustrations iv 

Foreword vii 

Introduction i 

Chapter 

I.  A  Matter  of  Words    4 

II.  The  Indian  and  the  Tomahawk 8 

III.  The  Simple  Hatchet  or  Belt  Axe 18 

IV.  The  Missouri  War  Hatchet 22 

V.  The  Spontoon  Tomahawk 24 

VI.  The  Halberd  or  "Battle  Axe"  Tomahawk 27 

VII.  The  Spiked  Tomahawk     29 

VIII.  Tomahawks  with  Hammer  Polls 31 

IX.  Celtiform  Tomahawks 32 

X.  The  Pipe  Tomahawk 33 

XL  The  White  Man  and  the  Tomahawk     40 

XII.  Naval  Boarding  Axes    44 

Directory  of  Makers  and  Dealers   46 

Index  to  Provenience   53 

Appendix: 

"The  Blacksmith's  Shop,"  hy  Milford  G.  Chandler   55 

Bibliography 78 

Captions  to  Photographs 83 


111 


IV  CONTENTS 

ILLUSTRATIONS 
Plates 
I.  Decorated  Pipe  Tomahawk  frontispiece 

(following  page  32) 

11.  Sketch  of  an  Indian  throwing  a  tomahawk. 

III.  Engraved  powder  horn. 

IV.  Sketches  of  mid-igth  century  weapons,  by  Seth  Eastman. 
V.  Page  from  Lewis  and  Clark's  journal. 

VI.  Page  from  Lewis  and  Clark's  journal. 
VII.  King  Hendrick  of  the  Mohawks. 
VIII.  Cornplanter,  painted  by  Frederick  BartoU. 
IX.  Sa  Ga  Yeath  Qua  Pieth  Ton,  one  of  the  "Four  Kings." 
X.  Indian  with  a  spontoon  axe. 
XL  Woainga,  or  "Pipe- Stem,"  an  Oto  man. 
XII.  Chief  Holds-His-Enemy,  a  Crow  warrior. 
XIII.  Plug  cutter  for  Battle  Ax  Plug  Tobacco. 


Text  Figures 

PAGE 

1.  Nomenclature  of  a  hatchet 11 

2.  Manufacture  of  a  simple  belt  axe    19 

3.  Spontoon  type  blade  24 

4.  Halberd  type  blade    27 

5.  Construction  of  a  spiked  hatchet 30 

6.  Lathing  hatchet   31 

7.  Shinghng  hatchet 31 

8.  Method  of  forging  a  pipe  tomahawk 37 

9.  Tools  and  equipment  used  in  making  tomahawks 58-59 

10.  Improvisations  62 

11.  Improvisations  63 

12.  Improvisations  64 

13.  Manufacture  of  the  common  pipe  tomahawk    66-67 

14.  Alterations  on  the  common  pipe  tomahawk   68 

15.  The  pierced  eye  technique  of  making  a  tomahawk    . . .  70-71 

16.  Manufacture  of  a  gun-barrel  tomahawk 72 


CONTENTS  V 

PAGE 


17.  Manufacture  of  a  pipe  tomahawk  using  the  "wrap- 
around eye  and  blade"  technique  74-75 

18.  An  Indian's  modification  of  a  ball-peen  hammer "]"] 


Photographs  of  Tomahawks 
(following  page  142) 

Aboriginal  Forms  Nos.  i-  23 

Simple  Hatchets  and  Belt  Axes 25-  45 

Missouri  War  Hatchets   46-  51 

Spontoon  Tomahawks 52-  53 

Halberd  Tomahawks   54-  60 

Spiked  Tomahawks    61-  ^^ 

Tomahawks  with  Hammer  Polls   89-101 

Celtiform  Tomahawks   102-106 

Pipe  Tomahawks  of  the  Halberd  Form    107-108 

Pipe  Tomahawks  with  Conventional  Blades : 

Iron  or  Steel  Heads  109-208 

Brass  Heads  with  Steel  Edges  209-219 

All-Brass  Heads    220-239 

Pewter  or  Lead  Heads 240-255 

Silver  Heads   256 

Stone  Heads    257 

Pipe  Tomahawks  with  Spontoon  Blades : 

Iron  or  Steel  Heads  258-287 

Brass  Heads 288-293 

Pewter  Heads   294-298 

Stone  Heads    299 

Implements  Used  by  White  Men 300-314 


FOREWORD 

The  pipe  tomahawk  is  an  implement  unique  in  American  Indian 
Hfe.  Although  most  native  peoples  of  the  world  had  cutting  axes 
and  smoking  pipes,  it  was  only  in  North  America  that  these  two 
functions  were  fused  into  a  single  object.  Over  a  period  of  250 
years,  it  served  on  different  occasions  as  a  functioning  tool,  a 
ceremonial  adjunct,  a  decorative  object,  and  a  symbol  of  prestige. 
And,  above  all,  it  has  become  romantically  associated  with  the 
Indian  as  no  other  implement. 

Yet  with  all  of  this  historical  and  sociological  lore,  almost  no 
serious  attention  has  been  given  to  the  story  of  its  development  and 
typology,  as  the  bibliography  will  attest;  this  volume  represents 
an  attempt  to  present  much  of  that  story  in  detail. 

In  selecting  a  suitable  author,  we  turned  to  Harold  L.  Peterson, 
an  outstanding  authority  on  American  colonial  arms  and  armor, 
to  supply  for  the  first  time  a  summary  of  the  art  of  the  black- 
smith together  with  a  history  of  the  role  of  the  tomahawk  in 
Indian  life. 

To  round  out  the  more  personal  relationship  of  the  blacksmith 
with  his  Indian  customers,  we  asked  Milford  G.  Chandler  to  recount 
experiences  drawn  from  his  early  life  in  the  Midwest.  Mr.  Chandler, 
who  grew  up  in  Indiana  when  it  was  still  a  part  of  the  Frontier, 
saw  smiths  turn  out  tomahawks  for  the  Indian  trade.  We  are 
indebted  to  his  son,  Alan  L.  Chandler,  for  executing  the  drawings 
for  the  appendix. 

Accompanying  these  accounts  is  certainly  the  most  extensive 
visual  record  of  tomahawk  types  yet  published.  Captions  supply 
documentation  as  complete  as  has  been  possible  to  gather  for  each 
of  the  more  than  three  hundred  specimens  illustrated,  making  this 
volume  particularly  useful  as  a  reference  work. 

A  word  should  be  inserted  concerning  provenience.  Wherever  a 
given  tomahawk  has  been  obtained  from  a  known  person  or  tribe, 
the  phrase,  "collected  from. . .,"  is  employed.  This  is  the  most 
accurate  statement  which  can  be  supplied  to  associate  the  object 
with  its  history.  When  a  specimen  comes  to  the  Museum  with  an 
alleged  history  or  statement  of  ownership  through  a  third  hand, 
the  phrase,  "attributed  to...,"  impHes  that  we  accept  at  face 
value  the  asserted  provenience,  but  cannot  guarantee  its  accuracy 
beyond  this  hearsay  and  our  own  experience. 

vii 


Vlll  FOREWORD 

Much  of  the  study  material  is  drawn  from  the  collections  of  the 
Museum,  gathered  over  the  past  half  century.  However,  particular 
acknowledgement  must  be  made  to  the  Harold  J.  Hibben  Col- 
lection, which  forms  such  a  significant  part  of  this  work.  Mr.  Hib- 
ben, of  Indianapolis,  Indiana,  was  an  avid  collector  of  tomahawks 
and,  at  his  death  in  1956,  owned  some  four  hundred  and  fifty 
examples.  These  were  generously  presented  to  the  Museum  in  1959 
by  his  nephew,  Mr.  Richard  M,  Fairbanks,  also  of  Indianapolis. 
They  have  been  given  catalog  numbers  22/7198  through  22/7408, 
so  that  all  of  the  Hibben  specimens  used  herein  can  be  readily 
identified. 

Our  gratitude  is  extended  to  Mr.  Fairbanks  for  the  gift  of  the 
Hibben  Collection  without  which  this  publication  would  not  have 
been  possible,  and  we  acknowledge  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Robert 
Beverly  Hale  of  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of  Art  for  his  friendly 
cooperation  in  our  behalf.  To  Mr.  Peterson  go  our  thanks  for  his 
wiUingness  to  undertake  this  study,  as  well  as  for  his  patience  during 
the  long  delay  in  its  production;  and  to  Miss  Elaine  Taylor  for 
editing  the  manuscript. 

Frederick  J.  Dockstader 
Director 
November,  1964 

Foreword  to  the  Revised  Edition 

The  popularity  of  the  first  edition  is  a  testament  to  the  scholar- 
ship of  the  author  as  well  as  interest  in  the  subject.  We  are  partic- 
ularly grateful  to  Mr.  Peterson  for  his  cooperation  in  verifying 
certain  details,  making  minor  corrections,  and  providing  data  on 
additional  specimens  not  included  in  the  original  volume.  Since 
the  earher  publication,  some  of  the  specimens  are  known  to  have 
changed  hands  as  noted;  while  every  effort  has  been  made  to 
keep  our  records  up-to-date,  it  cannot  be  guaranteed  that  the 
ownership  of  all  examples  is  as  listed. 

F.  J.  D. 
July,  1970 


INTRODUCTION 

THE  metal  trade  tomahawk  has  long  been  an  object  of  fasci- 
nation for  both  the  amateur  collector  and  the  ethnologist. 
Few  other  implements  have  ever  combined  so  many  different 
functions:  tool,  weapon,  scepter,  symbol  and  smoking  pipe.  In  this 
one  instrument  is  collected  the  lore  of  handicraft,  warfare,  prestige, 
ceremony  and  personal  comfort.  Because  of  this  wide  appeal, 
and  because  good  specimens  are  scarce,  prices  have  increased  tre- 
mendously on  the  open  market  in  recent  years.  This  has  led,  in 
turn,  to  the  manufacture  of  reproductions  and  even  outright  fakes. 
Yet,  in  spite  of  this  very  evident  widespread  interest,  surprisingly 
little  has  been  published  on  the  tomahawk.  Arthur  Woodward's 
pioneering  study,  which  appeared  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  Fort 
Ticonderoga  Museum  in  1946,  and  a  few  short  articles  in  more 
recent  periodicals,  constitute  almost  the  entire  specific  literature 
of  the  subject.  It  is  hoped  that  the  present  study  will  collate  the 
data  that  have  already  been  published  in  scattered  sources  with 
those  gleaned  from  an  intensive  study  of  actual  specimens  into 
one  handy  reference  for  the  use  of  future  students  in  their  efforts 
to  carry  the  investigations  still  further. 

As  has  been  stated,  the  number  of  surviving  tomahawks  is 
comparatively  small.  It  is  a  fortunate  museum  or  collector  with 
more  than  100  specimens,  and  the  Museum  of  the  American  Indian 
with  over  700  is  in  a  class  completely  by  itself.  Yet  almost  every 
one  of  these  tomahawks  is  different  from  every  other.  A  few  exact 
duplications  are  encountered,  but  they  are  the  exception ;  usually, 
even  these  demonstrate  variations  or  differences  in  the  decoration 
or  in  the  haft.  Thus  it  has  been  necessary  to  choose  only  representa- 
tive examples  for  illustration  and  description  here.  Of  more  than 
2000  specimens  studied  by  the  writer  during  the  past  ten  years, 
approximately  300  have  been  chosen  as  illustrating  the  principal 
types,  or  which  display  characteristic  features,  that  will  assist  in 
identifying  others  which  may  differ  somewhat  in  detail. 

The  dating  of  tomahawks  is  as  yet  by  no  means  precise,  for 
only  a  very  few  bear  dates  or  makers'  names.  The  balance  must  be 
dated  approximately  through  provable  historical  associations, 
paintings  or  photographs,  or  the  use  of  various  materials  which  are 
in  themselves  datable.  Much  weight  must  be  given  to  style  and 
workmanship.  This  is  a  dangerous  procedure,  for  manufacturers  in 


2  INTRODUCTION 

certain  areas  tended  to  be  more  conservative  than  those  in  others, 
and  one  is  apt  to  find  a  tomahawk  made  by  an  older  or  an  isolated 
smith  in  a  style  that  was  no  longer  generally  popular  at  the  time 
of  its  manufacture.  Thus  the  dates  given  herein  are  in  most  cases 
approximations  based  on  the  best  collateral  data  available,  and 
they  represent  the  years  of  greatest  popularity  for  each  style. 

No  work  such  as  this  would  be  possible  without  the  help  of 
many  unselfish  people  who  have  freely  given  of  their  time  and 
knowledge  and  have  allowed  me  full  access  to  their  collections.  It 
would  not  be  possible  to  mention  all  who  have  assisted,  but  it  is 
imperative  that  special  acknowledgment  be  given  the  following: 

To  Mr.  E.  K.  Burnett,  Dr.  Frederick  J.  Dockstader  and  Mr. 
Charles  TurbyfiU  of  the  Museum  of  the  American  Indian;  Mr. 
Philip  C.  Gifford,  Jr.,  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  Hist- 
ory; Mr.  Robert  A.  Elder,  Mr.  Edgar  M.  Howell  and  Mr.  Craddock 
Goins,  Jr.  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution;  Mrs.  Eugenia  Langford 
of  the  Interior  Department  Library;  Mr.  Donald  A.  Shelley  and 
Mr.  George  Bird  of  the  Henry  Ford  Museum ;  Mr.  Patrick  Patterson 
of  the  Woolaroc  Museum;  Col.  Edward  P.  Hamilton  and  Miss 
Eleanor  Murray  of  the  Fort  Ticonderoga  Museum,  all  of  whom 
have  made  the  materials  in  their  care  freely  available  for  study, 
have  offered  critical  suggestions  or  provided  other  assistance  far 
beyond  the  call  of  duty. 

To  Dr.  Francis  S.  Ronalds  and  Charles  Steen  of  the  National 
Park  Service,  and  Charles  Hanson,  former  Director  of  the  Museum 
of  the  Fur  Trade,  who  have  provided  helpful  documentary  ma- 
terials and  suggestions. 

To  Ben  F.  Hubbell,  LaDow  Johnston,  John  and  Mary  duMont, 
Robert  Abels,  Ben  Palmer,  William  O.  Sweet,  Gary  L.  Granger, 
T.  M.  Hamilton,  Robert  F.  Wheeler,  Clem  Caldwell,  Donald  Baird, 
Herb  Glass,  Clay  Fielden,  and  Joe  Kindig,  Jr.,  advanced  col- 
lectors all,  who  have  freely  loaned  their  pieces  for  study,  and 
provided  photographs  or  data  without  restriction. 

To  Dr.  Carl  P.  Russell,  who  has  generously  permitted  access  to 
and  use  of  his  unpublished  study  on  the  materiel  of  the  fur  trade. 

To  Dr.  Wilfred  D.  Logan  of  the  National  Park  Service,  who 
read  and  criticized  the  manuscript. 

To  Bluford  W.  Muir,  who  spent  many  hours  photographing  the 
specimens  from  private  collections. 

To  Carmelo  Guadagno,  staff  photographer  of  the  Museum  of 
the  American  Indian,  for  his  patient  cooperation  in  taking  care  of 
the  requirements  of  a  specialist  in  such  painstaking  fashion. 

To  Milford  G.  Chandler,  for  his  courtesy  in  allowing  the  in- 
clusion of  his  own  observations  as  an  Appendix  to  this  study. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

And  finally,  to  my  wife,  Dorothy,  who  typed  the  manuscript 
and  helped  in  so  many  ways. 

Harold  L.  Peterson, 

Chief  Curator 

National  Park  Service 

United  States  Department  of  the  Interior 

Arlington,  Virginia,  1964 


I* 


CHAPTER  I 
A  MATTER  OF  WORDS 

NAMES  can  confuse  as  well  as  clarify,  and  this  is  especially  true 
of  the  tomahawk.  For  years  students  and  writers,  archeolo- 
gists  and  collectors  have  been  accustomed  to  using  names  for 
specific  forms  or  general  categories  of  hatchet  or  tomahawk.  They 
refer  to  squaw  axes,  half  axes,  or  to  French,  Spanish,  Minne- 
wauken,  Woodlands,  or  English  types  with  the  calm  assumption 
that  these  are  accepted  terms  and  will  be  understood.  This  is  far 
from  true.  Many  of  these  names  have  little  or  no  validity  in  histor- 
ical fact  or  usage  but  have  been  coined  by  a  writer  and  based  upon 
his  own  observations  and  deductions.  Another  writer  in  a  different 
part  of  the  country  often  independently  adopts  the  same  term  for 
an  entirely  different  pattern,  and  adds  to  the  confusion.  It  is  thus 
necessary  to  discuss  and  define  the  various  technical  terms  and 
names  that  will  be  used  in  this  study,  as  well  as  a  few  that  will  not 
be  used.  Generally  speaking,  when  it  is  necessary  to  identify  a 
category,  a  descriptive  name  based  on  obvious  physical  features 
will  be  used  unless  there  is  definite  historical  or  ethnological  reason 
for  classifying  it  according  to  use  or  area  of  origin. 

The  very  word  tomahawk  itself  has  a  history  of  confusion.  It 
derives  from  the  Algonquian  Indians  of  Virginia  whose  original 
words  tamahak  or  tamahakan  indicated  a  utensil  for  cutting.  Other 
Algonquian  groups  had  similar  words,  but  it  is  the  Lenape  term 
which  entered  the  English  language  through  the  settlers  who 
founded  Jamestown  and  encountered  this  group  in  1607. ^ 

The  colonists  were  by  no  means  linguists,  and  their  faulty 
understanding  of  the  Indian's  usage  of  the  term  made  their  defini- 
tions inaccurate  and  has  so  clouded  the  issue  that  it  is  now  impos- 
sible to  be  absolutely  sure  just  which  instrument  or  class  of  in- 
struments an  Algonquian  speaker  meant  when  he  used  the  word. 

1  William  H.  Holmes,  "Tomahawk,"  in  Frederick  W.  Hodge  (ed.) 
"Handbook  of  American  Indians  North  of  Mexico,"  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology  Bulletin  30,  2  vols  (Wash.,  D.C.,  1909,  1910),  II,  773-775. 
Arthur  Woodward,  "The  Metal  Tomahawk,  Its  Evolution  and  Distribution 
in  North  America,"  Bulletin  of  the  Fort  Ticonderoga  Museum,  VII,  No.  3 
(Jan.  1946),  3.  William  R.  Gerard,  "The  Term  Tomahawk,"  American 
Anthropologist,  X,  No.  3  (1908),  177-180.  William  H.  Holmes,  "The  Toma- 
hawk," ibid.,  X,  No,  2  (1908),  264-276. 


A   MATTER   OF  WORDS  5 

Captain  John  Smith  is  beheved  to  have  been  the  first  to  bring  the 
word  into  EngHsh  in  his  brief  vocabulary  of  Indian  terms  prepared 
sometime  during  the  years  1607-1609,  when  he  defined  tomahaks 
simply  as  meaning  "axes."  Later  he  added  that  the  term  was 
applied  to  both  the  native  war  club  and  the  iron  hatchet. 2 

Subsequent  writers  followed  suit,  applying  the  name  impartial- 
ly to  the  native  celt  hatchet,  the  grooved  axe,  the  knobbed  club, 
the  falchion  club,  spiked  club,  gunstock  club,  and  the  iron  trade 
axe  and  hatchet.  Taken  out  of  its  context  in  an  early  document, 
the  word  thus  means  nothing ;  it  could  be  any  striking  weapon  or 
tool.  Conversely,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  during  the  18  th 
century  iron  hatchets  are  sometimes  referred  to  as  "war  clubs"  by 
contemporaries.^ 

As  the  years  passed,  the  term  tomahawk  came  to  be  applied 
strictly  to  metal  hatchets.  Any  form  of  hatchet  not  specifically 
connected  with  a  trade  or  profession,  such  as  a  coopering  hatchet, 
shingler's  hatchet,  or  the  like,  might  receive  the  name,  though 
there  was  always  the  implication  that  it  was  to  be  used  as  a  weapon. 
During  the  i8th  century  this  usage  reached  its  height.  Then  the 
trend  again  changed.  The  term  began  to  be  restricted  to  hatchets 
possessed  by  Indians,  and  finally  it  was  applied  primarily  to  the 
pipe  tomahawk,  while  other  forms  were  designated  simply  as 
"hatchets,"  or  sometimes  "war  axes,"  or  "battle  axes." 

Through  all  of  this  period,  the  tomahawk  might  also  be  simply 
called  a  hatchet.  This  term,  too,  is  interesting  in  its  usage  and 
implications.  Normally  it  connotes  a  small  form  of  the  axe,  de- 
signed to  be  wielded  with  one  hand.  Yet,  during  the  17  th  century, 
the  weights  given  for  hatchet  heads  to  be  traded  to  the  Indians, 
(often  two  or  three  pounds  each) ,  indicate  that  they  were  sometimes 
of  a  size  that  would  be  considered  an  axe  today.* 

It  is  this  size  factor  that  also  accounts  for  another  term  fre- 
quently encountered,  the  squaw  axe  {see  No.  25).  Some  modern 
writers  have  a  tendency  to  equate  the  squaw  axe  with  all  simple 

2  Ihid.  John  Smith,  "A  Map  of  Virginia,"  Lyon  Gardiner  Tyler  (ed.), 
Narratives  of  Early  Virginia,  1606-162 5  (N.  Y.,  1907),  78,  102,  103.  Carl 
■Russell,  Firearms,  Traps  and  Tools  of  the  Mountain  Men  (N.  Y.,  1967),  239. 

3  Ihid.  William  Wood,  New  England's  Prospects  (1898),  62.  "A  Relation 
of  Maryland,  1635,"  Clayton  C.  Hall  (ed.),  Narratives  of  Early  Maryland, 
1633-1684  (N.Y.,  1910),  86.  William  S.  Fowler,  "Tomahawks  of  Central 
New  England,"  Bulletin  of  the  Massachusetts  Archeological  Society,  XII, 
No.  3  (Apr.  1951),  29-37,  a-iid  "Trade  Tomahawks,"  ibid.,  XIII,  No.  3 
(Apr.  1952),  23-25. 

*  Harold  A.  Innis,  The  Fur  Trade  in  Canada  (New  Haven,  1930),  15. 
Carl  Russell,  op.  cit. 


6  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

hatchets  and  thus  differentiate  them  from  those  having  spikes, 
pipes  or  other  attachments.  There  seems  to  be  no  historical  justi- 
fication for  this  usage,  however,  except  that  squaw  axes  were 
simple  implements  without  spikes  or  pipes.  The  term  is  an  old 
one,  in  use  at  least  by  1806,  and  it  appears  to  have  been  used  to 
designate  the  two-  and  three-pound  hatchets  mentioned  above, 
when  it  became  the  custom  to  distinguish  them  from  the  lighter 
forms  of  the  size  normally  associated  with  hatchets  today.  These 
smaller  forms  were  suitable  for  use  as  a  weapon  and  for  light  cut- 
ting. The  larger  ones  were  more  useful  for  cutting  wood  and  other 
utilitarian  tasks  normally  performed  by  Indian  women.  Although 
such  differentiation  apparently  began  early  in  the  18  th  century, 
it  has  as  yet  been  impossible  to  document.^ 

A  final  general  term  occasionally  encountered  is  the  half  axe  or 
half  hatchet.  This  derived  from  the  era  when  axe  blades  frequently 
flared  out  symmetrically.  In  the  half  axe  only  the  side  toward  the 
hand  flared  out.  The  other  side  was  straight  or  curved  slightly  in 
the  same  direction.  In  the  era  considered  here,  the  half  axe  was 
the  normal  form  for  hatchets  and  felling  axes,  and  the  term  itself 
was  becoming  obsolete. ^ 

In  this  present  volume,  only  metal  trade  tomahawks  will  be 
considered  in  detail,  and  the  broadest  definition  of  these  will  be 
used  to  cover  all  of  the  forms  normally  traded  to  Indians  or  used 
by  Caucasians  and  called  by  that  name.  For  purposes  of  classi- 
fication, these  will  be  divided  into  types  according  to  their  dis- 
tinguishing physical  characteristics,  then  subdivided  by  chrono- 
logical period,  and  the  materials  of  which  they  are  made. 

For  all  hatchets  and  axes  there  are  certain  technical  terms 
which  make  description  easier,  and  these,  too,  must  be  tightly 
defined  to  prevent  confusion  {see  Fig.  i).  The  piece  is  normally 
described  as  seen  in  a  horizontal  position  with  the  head  to  the 
viewer's  right,  blade  down.  The  side  toward  the  viewer  is  then  the 
obverse;  the  far  side  is  the  reverse.  There  are  two  principal  parts 
of  every  complete  hatchet :  the  haft  (which  is  also  called  the  handle 
or  helve)  and  the  head.  The  head  consists  of  the  blade  or  hit,  the  eye 
(the  hole  through  which  the  haft  passes),  and  the  foil  (technically, 
the  thickened  portion  of  the  head  on  top  of  the  eye  and  opposite 
the  blade,  but  usually  applied  to  the  top  of  the  eye  whether  it  is 
thickened  or  not).  The  blade  itself  is  sharpened  to  an  edge  for 
cutting,  and  has  two  main  features :  the  corner  nearest  the  hand, 
called  the  heel,  and  the  far  corner,  called  the  leading  edge.  Sometimes 

^  Sir  William  Craigie  and  James  R.  Hulbert  (eds.),  A  Dictionary  of 
American  English,  4  vols.  (Chicago,  1944),  ^^>  2210.  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  6. 
^  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  9. 


A   MATTER   OF  WORDS 


there  are  also  projections  of  the  head  along  the  haft  on  either  side 
of  the  eye.  These  are  called  ears  and  serve  to  strengthen  the  joint. 
In  some  specimens  there  is  a  metal  plate  or  cap  attached  to  the 
haft  in  front  of  the  head,  often  helping  to  secure  the  head  in 
position.  This  is  called  di  fore-end  cap,  or  plate,  as  the  case  may  be. 


FORE 
END 


Figure  i.    Nomenclature  of  a  hatchet. 


In  addition  to  these  technical  features,  three  terms  wiU  be 
used  for  dimensions:  length,  height,  and  width,  abbreviated  as  L., 
H.,  and  W.  Length  applies  to  those  tomahawks  with  hafts,  and  is 
taken  from  the  forward  end  of  the  haft  to  the  tip  of  the  butt 
or  mouthpiece  (if  the  specimen  is  a  pipe  tomahawk).  Height 
refers  to  the  vertical  dimension  of  the  head.  It  is  taken  in  a 
straight  line  from  a  point  equal  to  the  tip  of  the  spike,  the  top  of 
the  pipe  bowl  or  the  top  of  the  poU  depending  upon  the  type  of 
axe,  to  the  lowest  projection  of  the  blade.  The  width  refers  speci- 
ficaUy  to  the  blade  and  is  measured  at  its  widest  point  (in  spontoon 
blades,  the  curling  arms  are  ignored  and  only  the  blade  proper  is 
considered).  There  are  other  minor  features,  but  these  are  the  es- 
sential ones  for  the  discussion  which  follows. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  INDIAN  AND  THE  TOMAHAWK 

ALMOST  from  the  moment  the  Indian  first  saw  the  metal  hatchet 
or  tomahawk  he  coveted  it,  and  sought  to  possess  one  for 
himself.  The  efficiency  of  the  new  implement  was  readily  ap- 
parent :  it  was  deadlier  in  combat,  more  efficient  in  cutting  wood, 
and  just  as  useful  as  a  ceremonial  object.  Although  it  was  an  excel- 
lent weapon,  the  white  man  was  not  as  reluctant  to  trade  it  as  he 
was  to  dispense  guns.  The  axe  was  also  self-sufficient;  it  could 
function  without  such  components  as  powder  and  ball  that  had  to 
be  obtained  from  the  traders.  Thus  the  hatchet  could  and  did 
spread  rapidly  through  Indian  trade  routes  far  from  the  points  of 
white  contact,  reaching  tribes  and  areas  as  yet  unknown  to  the 
few  Europeans  along  the  coast. 

As  it  was  absorbed,  the  single  tomahawk  or  hatchet  replaced  a 
number  of  more  primitive  specialized  implements.  It  has  already 
been  noted  that  the  early  colonial  writers  displayed  a  distressing 
lack  of  accuracy  in  their  description  and  identification  of  Indian 
weapons  and  tools.  Even  when  descriptions  were  essayed,  they 
were  normally  so  vague  that  it  is  difficult  if  not  impossible  to 
obtain  an  accurate  mental  image  of  the  piece  in  question. 

Through  the  reading  of  numerous  contemporary  comments 
made  over  a  period  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  years,  however,  a  pat- 
tern does  seem  to  appear.  There  were  probably  at  least  four  and 
possibly  five  major  types  of  clubs  used  as  weapons  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  United  States  when  the  colonists  arrived.  Of  these,  two 
principal  categories  were  most  often  designated  as  tomahawks — 
the  ball-headed  club  and  the  celt  [see  Nos.  i-io).  This  may  not  have 
been  what  was  intended  by  the  Algonquians,  from  whom  the  word 
came,  but  nevertheless  it  would  seem  to  be  the  finally  accepted 
English  meaning  and  in  this  sense  establishes  them  as  the  direct 
antecedents  of  the  metal  tomahawk.  Thus  one  finds  William  Wood 
stating  in  1634,  'Tomahawks  be  staves  of  two  foote  and  a  halfe 
long  and  a  knob  at  one  end  as  round  and  bigge  as  a  football."^ 
Needless  to  say,  this  was  not  the  size  of  the  modern  football.  A 
century  later,  Mark  Catesby  summed  up  the  situation  thus : 

'  Wood,  op.  cit.,  62. 


THE   INDIAN   AND   THE   TOMAHAWK  9 

These  [tomahawks]  were  of  two  kinds:  one  was  a  staff  about 
three  feet  long,  with  a  large  knob  at  the  end ;  the  others  were  made 
of  stone  ground  to  an  edge,  of  the  form  and  size  of  a  small  hatchet, 
and  fixed  to  a  strong  handle ;  these  would  cut,  and  were  of  much 
use,  as  well  for  war  as  for  hollowing  their  canoes,  and  other  mechan- 
ick  uses;  with  these  they  fought  and  w^orked,  but  since  the  intro- 
duction of  iron  hatchets,  which  they  still  call  tommahawks,  they 
have  wholly  laid  aside  their  stone  ones.s 


Although  Catesby  was  essentially  correct  in  stating  that  the 
celt  as  a  tool  had  been  superseded,  it  should  not  be  assumed  that 
the  club  as  a  weapon  or  ceremonial  symbol  had  also  become  ob- 
solete. The  ball-headed  club  continued  in  use  as  a  weapon  through 
the  early  19  th  century,  often  with  the  addition  of  an  iron  point  set 
in  the  ball.  Some  time  between  1746-1755,  Sir  William  Johnson 
had  been  given  such  a  tomahawk  club  [see  No.  3),  and  small  de- 
cadent forms  for  ceremonial  use  have  been  made  until  very  recent 
times.  Other  clubs,  such  as  the  gunstock  club  and  the  stone-headed 
war  club  of  the  Plains  tribes  also  continued  in  use  as  weapons 
through  the  middle  of  the  19  th  century.  For  examples,  see  Plates 
III  and  IV.9 

The  first  contact  of  the  Indian  with  the  iron  or  steel  axe  un- 
doubtedly occurred  with  the  arrival  of  the  Vikings,  and  to  judge 
from  accounts  in  the  sagas,  the  meetings  were  not  auspicious.  Two 
instances  are  recounted  which  may  well  be  the  first  recorded  en- 
counters of  the  Indian  with  the  weapon  which  later  was  to  become 
almost  synonymous  with  his  warfare.  The  Saga  of  Eric  the  Red 
recalls  the  first  reported  battle  of  the  Vikings  with  the  natives  of 
America,  following  which 

®  Mark  Catesby,  The  Natural  History  of  Carolina,  Florida,  and  the 
Bahama  Islands,  2  vols.  (London,  1 731-1743),  II,  ix.  See  also:  Holmes, 
loc.  cit.)  Fowler,  loc.  cit.\  Hodge,  loc.  cit.;  Harold  E.  Driver  and  William  C. 
Massey,  "Comparative  Studies  of  North  American  Indians,"  Transactions 
of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  n.s.  XLVII,  Part  2  (Phil.,  1957), 
357;  John  R.  Swanton,  "The  Indians  of  the  Southeastern  United  States," 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology   Bulletin  i3y   (Wash.,  D.C.,   1946),  566- 

570- 

^  Driver  and  Massey,  loc.  cit.  Swanton,  loc.  cit.  Henry  R.  Schoolcraft, 
Historical  and  Statistical  Information  Respecting  the  History,  Condition  and 
Prospects  of  the  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  States,  6  vols.  (Phil,  1 851-1857), 
II,  plates  73,  74.  John  C.  Ewers,  "The  Horse  in  Blackfoot  Indian  Culture," 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  Bulletin  i^g  (Wash.,  D.C.,  1955),  200,  201, 
202,  326,  330.  Thomas  L.  McKenny  and  James  Hall,  The  Indian  Tribes 
of  North  America,  3  vols,  (Edinburgh,  1933,  1934)  passim.  Louis  Schell- 
bach,  "An  Historic  Iroquois  Warclub,"  Indian  Notes,  V,  No.  2,  (Apr. 
1928)  158-166.  George  Catlin,  North  American  Indians,  2  vols.,  (Edinburgh, 
1926),  I,  266. 


10  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

The  Skrellings  [Indians],  moreover,  found  a  dead  man,  and  an  axe 
lay  beside  him.  One  of  their  number  picked  up  the  axe  and  struck 
at  a  tree  with  it,  and  one  after  another  [they  tested  it]  and  it  seemed 
to  them  to  be  a  treasure,  and  to  cut  well;  then  one  of  their  number 
seized  it,  and  hewed  at  a  stone  with  it  so  that  the  axe  broke, 
whereat  they  concluded  that  it  could  be  of  no  use,  since  it  would 
not  withstand  stone,  and  they  cast  it  away.io 

In  another  instance 

One  of  the  Skrellings  picked  up  an  axe,  and  having  looked  at  it  for 
a  time,  he  brandished  it  about  one  of  his  companions,  and  hewed 
at  him,  and  on  the  instant  the  man  fell  dead.  Thereupon  the  big 
man  seized  the  axe,  and  after  examining  it  a  moment,  he  hurled  it 
as  far  as  he  could  out  into  the  sea.n 

Following  the  visits  of  the  Vikings,  the  Indian  was  cut  off  from 
a  source  of  iron  axes  for  some  500  years.  Then  came  the  explorers 
sailing  along  the  coasts  and  pushing  inland,  and  the  fishermen 
harvesting  the  Grand  Banks  who  also  stopped  along  the  shore  to 
trade  for  furs.  Axes  came  with  them ;  the  Indian  quickly  accepted 
them  and  sought  them  in  trade  well  before  permanent  colonies 
were  established.  The  French  were  the  leaders  in  this  sort  of  trade 
during  the  early  years.  Jacques  Cartier  is  known  to  have  distributed 
a  gift  of  hatchets  to  the  Micmac  and  Saguenay  in  1535,  and  both 
he  and  Verrazano  had  undoubtedly  done  so  on  earlier  voyages 
without  leaving  records  of  the  fact.  Special  trading  voyages  were 
made,  and  by  the  end  of  the  century  there  was  an  official  trading 
post,  probably  America's  first,  set  up  at  Tadoussac  on  the  Saguenay 
River.  Champlain  and  the  Sieur  de  Monts  fostered  the  trade  along 
the  northern  Atlantic  coast  and  down  the  St.  Lawrence  River. ^^ 

From  these  contacts  axes  spread  out  through  Indian  middlemen 
in  ever-widening  circles.  When  John  Smith  explored  Chesapeake 
Bay  in  1608,  he  found  iron  axes  that  had  come  down  Indian  trade 
routes  from  the  French  in  Canada.  From  the  Great  Lakes  area  the 
Hurons  braved  the  enmity  of  the  Iroquois  to  obtain  axes  and  other 
trade  goods.  When  the  Hurons  and  the  Ottawas  were  driven  west- 
ward after  1663,  they  took  their  axes  with  them  on  across  the 

^^  "The  Saga  of  Eric  the  Red,  also  called  The  Saga  of  Thorfinn 
Karlsefni,"  in  John  E.  Olson  (ed.),  The  Northmen,  Columbus  and  Cabot, 
985-1503,  (N.Y.,  1906),  39. 

11  "The  Vinland  History  of  the  Flat  Island  Book,"  ibid.,  61,  62. 

12  Jacques  Cartier,  The  Voyages  of  Jacques  Cartier,  H.  P.  Biggar  (ed.), 
(Ottawa,  1924),  53,  60,  121,  125,  233.  Samuel  de  Champlain,  The  Voyages 
of  Samuel  de  Champlain,  1604-1618,  W.  L.  Grant  (ed.),  (N.Y.,  1907), 
passim.  Carl  Russell,  op.  cit.,  239.  William  M.  Beauchamp,  "Metallic  Im- 
plements of  the  New  York  Indians,"  New  York  State  Museum,  Bulletin  55 
(1902),  6-20,  59-65. 


THE    INDIAN    AND   THE    TOMAHAWK  II 

Mississippi  into  the  land  of  the  Sioux  and  northward  along  Lake 
Superior  to  the  Cree.  These  peoples  had  not  known  the  axe,  and 
in  turn  entreated  the  newcomers  to  obtain  some  for  them.  Thus, 
from  the  French  posts  alone,  the  iron  axe  had  spread  south  as  far 
as  the  Chesapeake  and  west  along  the  St.  Lawrence,  around  the 
Great  Lakes  and  even  across  the  Mississippi. ^^ 

But  the  French  were  not  alone.  In  the  early  years  of  the  17  th 
century,  the  Dutch  and  Swedes  traded  up  the  Hudson  and  Dela- 
ware Rivers  and  along  the  coast  from  Connecticut  to  Delaware. 
The  English  began  operations  in  Virginia  and  New  England,  and 
in  1668  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  launched  its  extensive  opera- 
tions. In  Florida  and  the  Southwest,  the  Spanish  had  introduced 
the  axe  at  an  even  earlier  date.  The  pattern  of  Spanish  relations 
with  the  Indians  was  different,  with  an  emphasis  on  missions  and 
agriculture,  and  the  relative  scarcity  of  marketable  furs  did  not 
encourage  a  highly  developed  trade  relationship  for  the  distribution 
of  goods  such  as  axes.  Furthermore,  in  the  Southwest  the  cultural 
pattern  of  the  Indian  was  different ;  the  scarcity  of  timber  and  his 
methods  of  fighting,  which  did  not  involve  the  hatchet,  made  such 
implements  of  little  interest  to  him.  Thus,  comparatively  few  axes 
found  their  way  into  Indian  hands  so  that  the  over-all  distribution 
from  Spanish  sources  was  limited. 

Based  partly  upon  source  of  supply  and  partly  on  needs  and 
customs,  the  distribution  of  axes  and  tomahawks  can  be  divided 
into  certain  relatively  well-defined  zones.  The  area  of  greatest 
concentration  was  the  Northeast,  comprising  the  New  England 
and  Middle  Atlantic  states,  plus  Michigan,  Illinois,  and  Ohio.  The 
Mohawk  River  Valley  and  western  New  York  State  formed  the 
center,  with  probably  the  heaviest  concentration  of  axes,  hatchets 
and  tomahawks  of  all  descriptions  to  be  found  any  place  in  the 
United  States.  In  some  parts  of  this  area  recoveries  of  early  axes 
have  been  so  heavy  that  for  a  time  they  were  used  as  a  cash  crop 
by  farmers  who  regularly  "mined"  them  and  sold  the  iron.^* 

The  reasons  for  this  concentration  of  axes  in  the  Northeast 
are  easily  found.  There  were  many  sources  of  supply  immediately 
at  hand,  with  French,  Dutch,  and  English  traders  all  active.  The 
relative  density  of  Indian  population  insured  a  large  potential 
market.  And,  finally,  the  wooded  nature  of  the  country  and  the 
customs  of  the  various  people,  who  placed  great  value  on  clubs  and 

13  John  Smith,  "Proceedings  of  the  English  Colony,"  Lyon  Gardiner 
Tyler  (ed.),  Narratives  of  Early  Virginia,  1606-1625  (N.Y.,  1907),  149. 
Beauchamp,  loc.  cit.  Innis,  op.  cii.,  41,  42. 

"  Letter  from  Willis  Barshied,  Palatine  Bridge,  N.Y.,  to  the  author, 
Jan.,  i960.  Beauchamp,  op.  cii.,  60. 


12  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

tomahawks  both  as  sjnnbols  and  as  weapons.  Because  of  the 
position  they  held  in  the  culture  of  these  peoples,  the  hatchets  and 
tomahawks  from  this  area  are  primarily  functional  tools  and 
weapons;  the  ceremonial  role  did  not  outweigh  utility  until  after 
the  Indians  of  this  region  had  been  pacified  and  settled  on  reser- 
vations. 

Further  south,  the  concentration  of  tomahawks  becomes  less 
dense.  The  customs  and  needs  of  the  Indians  in  the  Southeastern 
United  States  were  similar  to  those  in  New  England  and  along  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes,  but  there  were  fewer  sources 
of  supply.  The  French  operated  along  the  Mississippi,  especially  in 
Louisiana,  but  not  on  the  same  scale  as  along  the  St.  Lawrence. 
The  Spanish  in  Florida  were  extremely  conservative  in  their 
dealings,  especially  since  their  Indians  did  not  have  the  fur 
resources  of  their  northern  brethren  for  exchange.  The  English  had 
most  of  the  rest  of  the  area  to  themselves. 

To  the  west,  the  tribes  of  the  Plains  and  the  Rocky  Mountains 
sought  the  hatchet,  and  an  area  of  concentration  developed  second 
in  importance  to  the  Northeast,  but  with  one  decided  difference : 
the  period  of  the  concentration  was  later,  and  there  was  a  distinct 
differentiation  between  the  hatchet  or  tomahawk  as  a  tool  and  as 
a  ceremonial  object.  The  old-time,  double-pointed  stone  war  club, 
on  its  long  supple  handle,  suited  the  mounted  combat  of  the  area 
exceptionally  well,  and  the  tomahawk  never  held  the  same  im- 
portance as  a  weapon  among  these  people  as  it  had  in  the  East, 
although  it  was  used  occasionally  in  the  19  th  century.  Thus  there 
was  an  increasing  emphasis  on  showy  but  inefficient  specimens, 
finally  reaching  a  stage  of  decadence  where  all  resemblance  to 
either  tool  or  weapon  had  vanished,  except  for  a  vague  similarity 
in  general  outline. 

The  Far  West,  except  for  the  Northwest  Coast,  apparently  had 
a  lower  concentration  even  than  the  Southeast,  and  the  Southwest 
had  almost  none  except  for  a  few  tools.  The  nature  of  the  country, 
the  customs  of  the  people,  and  the  Spanish  attitude  towards  trade 
all  combined  to  keep  this  area  barren.  Except  for  a  few  simple 
hatchets  used  as  tools,  such  tomahawks  as  are  found  there  seem 
usually  to  have  been  brought  in  by  Indians  migrating  from  the 
Plains  area.  Along  the  Northwest  Coast  there  is  again  a  higher  con- 
centration of  tomahawks  because  of  the  wooded  nature  of  the 
country  and  early  white  contact,  but  it  stiU  cannot  compare  with 
the  Northeast  where  the  contact  was  greater. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  primary  impact  of  the  metal 
hatchet  and  tomahawks  upon  Indian  culture  occurred  in  the 
Northeast  and  Southern  Great  Lakes  area  during  the  17  th  and 


THE   INDIAN   AND   THE   TOMAHAWK  I3 

18  th  centuries.  Lists  of  trade  goods  and  treaty  gifts  indicate  that 
the  axe,  hatchet,  or  tomahawk  were  among  the  most  desired 
objects.  As  many  as  300  axes  might  be  handed  out  at  one  treaty 
meeting,  and  Sir  Wilham  Johnson  estimated  that  the  Northern 
Indian  Department  needed  10,000  axes  for  trade  purposes  in  the 
year  1765  alone.  Even  if  this  should  be  taken  as  an  exceptional 
year,  operations  such  as  this  over  a  200-year  period  by  the  French, 
Dutch,  and  English  undoubtedly  poured  many  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  axes  of  all  sorts  into  this  area.^^ 

In  the  contemporary  documents  and  narratives  which  mention 
the  trade,  the  terms  axe,  hatchet,  and  tomahawk  are  frequently  used 
almost  interchangeably.  Even  so,  it  is  possible  to  establish  a 
general  evolution  of  types.  The  first  hatchets  distributed  during 
the  17  th  century  were  large  affairs,  with  heads  weighing  two  and 
three  pounds.  Gradually  smaller  types  became  more  popular  for 
carrying  on  hunting  or  war  parties,  and  the  larger  specimens  were 
left  in  the  villages.  All  of  these  were  smaller  copies  of  the  typical 
European  felling  axe,  and  will  be  discussed  in  detail  in  the  section 
on  simple  hatchets  and  belt  axes  in  Chapter  III. 

About  1700,  specialized  forms  began  to  appear  which  were  still 
called  axes,  hatchets,  or  tomahawks  at  the  time,  but  which  are 
normally  called  tomahawks  today.  First  came  those  with  auxiliary 
spikes,  then  almost  immediately  those  combined  with  pipes.  All 
were  large,  strong  implements,  useful  as  a  tool,  a  weapon,  or  as  a 
ceremonial  implement.  It  was  about  this  time  that  other  specialized 
forms  developed,  each  of  which  will  be  considered  in  greater  detail 
in  another  chapter.  Later  years  saw  the  decline  of  the  weapon: 
softer  metals  replaced  the  iron  and  steel,  hafts  were  reduced  in 
diameter,  blades  were  made  thinner,  and  all  semblance  of  an  edge 
disappeared.  Finally  came  the  copying  of  the  form  in  stone  {e.g., 
catlinite  and  slate),  and  wood,  which  could  serve  no  useful  purpose. 
Throughout  this  period  the  standard  simple  hatchet  remained 
popular  both  as  a  tool  and  weapon,  but  it  underwent  much  the 
same  evolution  as  did  the  standard  felling  axe,  albeit  more  slowly. 

With  his  acceptance  of  the  iron  hatchet,  and  the  consequent 
abandonment  of  native  stone  axes  and  clubs,  the  Indian  became 
more  dependent  upon  the  white.  Normally  he  did  not  have  either 
the  facilities  or  the  skill  to  repair  or  replace  the  iron  hatchet  when 
it  broke  or  wore  out.  Thus  there  were  constant  demands  for 
blacksmiths  to  live  with  the  Indians  to  care  for  their  new  hatchets 
and  repair  their  guns  and  other  metal  implements.  Young  men 
who  could  learn  the  language  were  sought  out  and  sent  to  the 

1^  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  9.  Beauchamp,  op.  cit.,  59-65.  Carl  Russell, 
op.  cit.,  232 ff. 


14  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

Indians.  There  they  became  interpreters  for  colonial  officers  and 
formed  a  spy  network  which  could  dispatch  word  of  impending 
trouble  or  dissent.  This  was  an  important  factor  in  keeping  the 
Indians  under  control  during  the  i8th  century  as  the  British  and 
French  struggled  for  mastery  of  the  continent  with  the  help  of 
their  native  allies. ^^ 

The  potentialities  of  the  axe  as  a  weapon  were  apparent  to  the 
Indian  from  the  outset.  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega  tells  of  a  bloody  fight 
between  an  Indian  armed  with  a  captured  battle  axe  and  several 
of  De  Soto's  soldiers,  in  which  he  even  includes  a  i6th  century 
version  of  the  old  story  of  a  man  being  cut  in  two  so  quickly  by  a 
keen  blade  that  he  remains  standing  and  has  time  to  pronounce  a 
benediction  before  falling.  In  Florida,  Jacques  LeMoyne  illustrated 
the  murder  of  a  colonist  by  an  Indian  with  an  axe  during  the  brief 
French  settlement  at  Fort  Caroline,  1564-1565.  By  the  early  17  th 
century  the  tomahawk  was  firmly  established  in  the  minds  of  the 
white  settlers  as  the  Indians'  primary  weapon,  and  was  much  more 
feared  than  the  bow  and  arrow.  Even  after  the  Indians  had  obtained 
a  sizeable  number  of  firearms,  the  tomahawk  retained  its  popularity 
and  importance.  Once  a  gun  had  been  fired,  it  was  useless  until  it 
could  be  reloaded ;  an  edged  weapon  was  needed  as  a  supplement, 
and  this  was  the  tomahawk.  Moreover,  for  surprise  attacks  and  raids, 
a  firearm  was  frequently  out  of  the  question.  And  even  though  a 
knife  was  available,  the  Indian  found  the  tomahawk  more  efficient, 
particularly  in  the  style  of  warfare  prevalent  in  the  East  during  the 
17th  and  18 th  centuries.^^ 

In  the  19  th  century  West,  the  tomahawk  was  less  important 
as  a  weapon.  Customs  of  warfare  were  different,  and  often  in- 
volved the  horse.  Even  so,  tomahawks  were  used,  as  evidenced  by 
an  account  related  by  the  trapper,  Osborne  Russell,  who  tells  of 
being  attacked  by  Indians  with  upraised  "battle  axes"  in  the  late 
1830's.  The  missionary,  Marcus  Whitman,  was  killed  by  a  Cayuse 
warrior  with  a  tomahawk  at  Waiilatpu  in  1847,  and  there  are 
skulls  in  the  Army  Medical  Museum  bearing  tomahawk  wounds 
which  were  collected  as  late  as  1869.^^ 

1®  Beauchamp,  op.  cit.,  62-64.  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  6-9.  Edmund  B. 
O'Callaghan  and  others  (eds.).  Documents  Relative  to  the  Colonial  History 
of  New  York,  15  vols.  (Albany,  1853-1887),  III,  775,  844;  IV,  23,  43;  IX,  816. 

1'  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  The  Florida  of  the  Inca,  John  G.  and  Jeanette 
J.  Varner  (eds.),  (Austin,  Tex.,  1951),  461-463.  Stefan  Lorant,  The  New 
World  (N.Y.,  1946),  119. 

18  Osborne  Russell,  Journal  of  a  Trapper  (Portland,  Ore.,  i955).  102. 
Ewers,  op.  cit.,  passim.  The  tomahawk  supposedly  used  to  mortally 
wound  \Vhitman  is  now  in  the  Oregon  Historical  Society  Museum,  Cat. 
No.  1607. 


THE   INDIAN   AND   THE   TOMAHAWK  I5 

Normally  the  tomahawk  was  used  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
a  club,  but  it  could  also  be  thrown  to  reach  a  foe  at  some  distance. 
Hurling  a  hatchet  so  that  it  will  strike  blade  foremost  requires 
considerable  skill;  the  thrower  has  to  know  how  many  times  the 
implement  will  turn  end-over-end  in  a  given  distance  and  be  able 
to  estimate  the  range  between  himself  and  his  target  accurately 
and  swiftly.  Should  he  miss,  he  would  be  disarmed  and  then  might 
find  himself  the  hunted,  instead  of  the  armed  hunter.  Nevertheless 
there  seems  to  be  ample  evidence  that  the  Indian  could  and  did 
throw  his  tomahawk.  In  the  1750's,  Henry  Timberlake  reported 
"Neither  are  the  Indians  less  expert  at  throwing  it  [the  tomahawk] 
than  using  it  near,  but  will  kill  at  a  considerable  distance. "^^  In 
1776,  Ebenezer  Elmer  visited  the  Six  Nations  and  noted  that 
"they  have  the  art  of  directing  and  regulating  its  motion,  so  that 
though  it  turns  round  as  it  flies,  the  edge  always  sticks  in  the  tree 
near  the  place  they  aim  at.^'^o  And  the  indefatigable  traveler, 
Thomas  Anburey,  reported  in  1777  that  in  pursuing  an  enemy  the 
Indians  threw  their  tomahawks  with  the  utmost  dexterity  and 
seldom  failed  "striking  it  into  the  skull  or  back  of  those  they 
pursue  ...  "2^  Much  later,  and  farther  west,  George  Catlin  spoke  of 
the  tomahawk  as  being  thrown  "with  unerring  and  deadly  aim. "22 
It  has  been  stated  that  this  accuracy  was  acquired  through  the 
custom  of  throwing  at  small  trees  as  a  camp  pastime,  and  Elmer's 
comment  would  seem  to  support  this.  It  was  also  supposedly 
the  custom  occasionally,  following  a  war  speech  in  council,  for  all 
the  assembled  warriors  to  throw  their  hatchets  high  into  the  air, 
catching  them  by  the  hafts  as  they  came  down,  while  uttering 
shouts  of  appro val.23  For  pictorial  evidence,  by  an  Indian  artist, 
of  tomahawk  throwing,  see  Plate  II. 

Because  of  its  importance  and  constant  use  as  a  weapon,  the 
tomahawk  became  a  symbol  for  war,  and  for  war  potential.  Many 
of  the  eastern  tribes  employed  it  as  a  metaphor  in  speeches  and 
ceremonies,  and  sent  either  actual  axes,  or  wampum  belts  which 
bore  such  a  woven  design,  when  war  was  under  discussion,  or  when 
peace  was  concluded.  For  example,  when  peace  was  concluded  in 
1670  following  the  defeat  of  the  Algonquians  by  the  Iroquois,  a 

^^  Lt.  Henry  Timberlake,  Lieut.  Henry  Timberlake' s  Memoirs,  1756- 
1763,  Samuel  Cole  Williams  (ed.),  (Johnson  City,  Tenn.,  1927),  77,  78. 

2*^  Ebenezer  Elmer,  "Journal  Kept  During  an  Expedition  to  Canada 
in  1776,"  New  Jersey  Historical  Society  Proceedings,  II  (1847),  157,  158. 

21  Thomas  Anburey,  Travels  Through  the  Interior  Parts  of  America, 
2  vols,  (London,  1791),  I,  356. 

22  Catlin,  op.  cit.,  I,  266. 

23  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  14.  Lewis  Morgan,  The  League  of  the  Iroquois, 
2  vols.  (N.Y.  1922),  II,  15. 


l6  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

council  was  held  during  which  six  tomahawks  were  buried — one 
for  each  of  the  Five  Nations,  and  one  representing  the  defeated 
tribe.  The  Algonquian  weapon  was  buried  first,  and  the  others  were 
then  placed  on  top  of  it,  so  that  if  hostilities  were  resumed,  the 
Algonquian  warriors  would  have  to  raise  the  weapons  of  their  foes 
from  their  own,  and  thus  be  reminded  of  their  defeat.  As  a  token 
of  condolence  and  peace,  the  vanquished  tribe  was  given  a  wam- 
pum belt  of  purple  beads,  with  a  tomahawk  design  worked  in 
white,  and  smeared  with  vermilion  paint  to  "scare  war"  {see 
No.  24).  As  late  as  1831,  the  Sauk  leader.  Black  Hawk,  sent  a 
miniature  wooden  tomahawk  smeared  with  vermilion  paint  to  the 
Chippewa  as  an  invitation  to  join  him  in  war.  Phrases  developed 
using  this  metaphor,  and  some  are  still  used  as  common  figures 
of  speech  today.  A  belligerent  statement  was  said  to  be  a' 'toma- 
hawk speech,"  while  to  "take  up  the  hatchet"  was  to  declare  war; 
and  as  it  still  does  today,  to  "bury  the  hatchet"  meant  to  conclude 
peace,  and  there  were  many  others,  the  meanings  of  which  are  less 
obvious.  24 

Another  function  of  the  tomahawk  was  the  execution  of  In- 
dians who  had  committed  crimes  against  their  own  people.  John 
Heckewelder  cites  such  an  instance  in  the  execution  of  Leatherlips, 
a  chief  of  the  Wyandot s,  who  had  offended  a  faction  of  his  tribe. 
When  it  was  decreed  that  he  must  die,  a  piece  of  bark  bearing  a 
crude  drawing  of  a  hatchet  was  handed  to  the  old  man  as  a  death 
warrant.  Although  he  protested  the  decision,  he  submitted  grave- 
ly, sitting  down,  placing  his  hand  upon  his  knee  and  supporting 
his  head  on  his  hand.  While  he  was  in  this  position,  one  of  the 
young  Indians  selected  to  carry  out  the  sentence  came  up  behind 
him  and  struck  him  twice  with  the  tomahawk.  In  another  instance, 
Mamachtaga,  a  Delaware  convicted  of  murder  and  sentenced  to 
death  by  a  white  frontier  court  in  the  late  18  th  century,  asked  that 
he  be  tomahawked  after  the  custom  of  his  people,  but  was  refused. ^s 

Evidence  that  the  tomahawk  was  used  in  the  ritualistic  torture 
of  prisoners  is  presented  by  many  tales  of  beatings  with  axes  and 
dismemberments.  From  a  very  early  period  comes  a  picture  of  the 
death  of  the  Jesuit  missionaries  Brebeuf  and  Lalemant  at  the 
hands  of  the  Iroquois  in  1649,  which  shows  several  of  the  simple 
hatchets  of  the  period  being  heated  in  a  fire  while  a  necklace  of 
red-hot  axe  heads  already  hangs  around  the  neck  of  Brebeuf.  It  is 
true  that  this  picture  was  made  in  France,  but  it  was  done  within 

2*  Joseph  Keppler,  "The  Peace  Tomahawk  Algonkian  Wampun," 
Indian  Notes,  VI,  No.  2  (Apr.  1929),  130-138.  Schoolcraft,  op.  cit.,  VI,  448. 
Beauchamp,  op.  cit.,  61,  62.  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  14-16. 

25  Beauchamp,  op.  cit.,  61.  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  17. 


THE   INDIAN   AND   THE   TOMAHAWK  I7 

a  few  years  after  the  event  depicted,  and  is  presumed  to  have  been 
based  upon  accurate  information  obtained  from  Jesuit  writers  of 
the  period.  2^ 

Specially  made  "presentation  tomahawks"  were  bestowed  as 
gifts  to  important  chiefs  to  solemnize  treaties  and  help  ensure 
their  friendship.  These  were  frequently  elaborate  affairs  with 
inlays  of  silver  in  both  blade  and  haft,  engraved  decorations, 
and  sometimes  bore  presentation  inscriptions.  Such  objects  were 
hi^ly  prized  by  their  recipients  and  were  often  handed  down 
from  generation  to  generation  as  part  of  the  regalia  of  leadership. 
In  i860,  Benson  J.  Lossing  found  Chief  G.  H.  M.  Johnson  of  the 
Six  Nations  carrying  a  presentation  tomahawk  of  the  18  th  century 
as  part  of  his  insignia  of  authority.  ^'^ 

The  addition  of  the  pipe  bowl  to  the  hatchet  blade  about  1700 
allowed  the  Indian  to  add  his  ceremonial  tobacco  rites  to  these 
other  uses  of  the  hatchet,  so  that  it  became  indeed  almost  in- 
dispensable. It  was  usually  carried  thrust  through  the  belt  on  the 
right  side,  or  in  the  back  with  the  head  to  the  right.  As  has  been 
noted,  it  was  this  symbolic  and  ceremonial  function  that  eventual- 
ly became  paramount  and  allowed  the  pipe  tomahawk  to  survive 
into  the  present  century  long  after  it  had  outlived  its  utilitarian 
purposes.  28 

26  Francisco  Creuxiux,  Historiae  Canadensis  sen  Novae  Franciae  (Paris, 
1664).  C.  W.  Jeffreys,  The  Picture  Gallery  of  Canadian  History,  3  vols. 
(Toronto,  1945-1952),  I,  106. 

2''  Benson  J.  Lossing,  The  Pictorial  Field-hook  of  the  War  of  181 2  (N.Y., 
1869),  421.  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  25-27. 

28  Joseph  D.  McGuire,  "Pipes  and  Smoking  Customs  of  the  American 
Aborigines,"  Annual  Report  of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum  for  1896,  1897 
(Wash.,  D.C.,  1899),  351-645,  passim.  George  A.  West,  "Tobacco,  Pipes 
and  Smoking  Customs  of  the  American  Indians,"  Bulletin  of  the  Public 
Museum  of  the  City  of  Milwaukee,  2  vols.  (Milwaukee,  1934),  passim. 
Elmer,  op.  cit.,  II,  152.  Anburey,  op.  cit.,  I,  356. 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  SIMPLE  HATCHET  OR  BELT  AXE 

OF  all  the  tomahawks  traded  to  the  Indians,  by  far  the  most 
common  type  was  the  simple  hatchet,  or  belt  axe.  This  was 
the  earliest  type  to  reach  the  Indian,  and  it  remained  popular 
from  the  i6th  through  the  19  th  century.  It  is  the  one  form  found  in 
every  part  of  the  United  States,  even  in  the  Southwest  and  Florida 
where  axes  are  rare.  This  same  essential  form  is  still  encountered 
in  parts  of  Canada  and  Alaska,  as  well  as  in  Mexico,  Central 
America,  and  even  in  South  America.  Some  have  been  made  in  the 
United  States  for  trade  to  those  areas  well  within  the  present 
century. 

The  basic  form  of  this  hatchet  was  derived  from  the  standard 
European  half- axe.  It  had  a  relatively  long  blade  flaring  on  the 
side  towards  the  hand  so  that  the  edge  might  be  once-and-a-half 
or  twice  as  wide  as  the  base  of  the  blade  at  the  eye.  Normally  these 
hatchets  were  made  in  two  pieces:  a  strap  of  iron  was  wrapped 
around  a  form  to  make  the  eye,  and  the  ends  of  this  strap  were 
hammered  to  make  the  flare  of  the  blade.  A  piece  of  steel  was  then 
inserted  between  them  to  serve  as  an  edge,  and  the  joints  were 
welded  by  heating  and  hammering.  Grinding  and  coarse  filing 
removed  the  worst  of  the  roughness,  and  the  axe  head  was  com- 
pleted. [See  Fig.  2). 

It  was  a  simple  object  that  any  competent  blacksmith  could 
make  in  a  short  time.  The  cost  was  low,  and  the  demand  was  so 
great  that  extremely  good  profits  could  be  made  on  the  furs  that 
these  axes  could  command.  Such  costs  varied  naturally  from 
country  to  country  and  year  to  year  during  the  two  centuries  that 
this  pattern  was  popular  in  America,  but  a  relative  idea  can  be 
obtained  from  LaSalle's  specifications  of  1684  for  axes  to  cost  7  or 
8  sous  per  pound  and  from  figures  of  the  1750's  and  '6o's,  when 
axes  of  this  pattern  cost  the  trader  3  shillings  each  in  quantity.  ^^ 

Even  this  low  cost  was  not  enough  to  satisfy  the  greedy,  and 
shoddy  products  were  frequently  offered  to  the  Indians  by  un- 
scrupulous individuals.  The  usual  form  of  chicanery  consisted  in 
omitting  the  steel  edge.  This  deception  was  not  readily  noticeable, 
and  would  not  be  detected  unless  the  buyer  understood  the  ipvin- 

29  Beauchamp,  op.  cit.,  62.  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  9. 

18 


THE    SIMPLE   HATCHET 


19 


ciples  of  axe  manufacture,  knew  exactly  what  to  look  for,  and 
what  tests  to  make.  He  would  normally  be  well  away  from  the 
post  before  he  discovered  that  his  new  hatchet  would  not  hold  an 
edge,  and  even  then  he  might  not  realize  what  the  trouble  was. 


Figure  2.    Manufacture  of  a  simple  belt  axe  from  a  strap  of  iron  and  a 
piece  of  steel. 


This  deception  was  the  subject  of  a  complaint  by  the  Five  Nations 
of  the  Iroquois  as  early  as  1701,  when  they  protested  to  Robert 
Livingston,  Secretary  of  Indian  Affairs,  thus : 

Brother.  We  can  not  omitt  to  acquaint  you  of  the  deceit  of  the 
Smiths  who  takes  our  money  and  instead  of  putting  steal  into  our 
hatchetts,  putts  Iron,  soe  that  as  soon  as  we  come  into  our  country 
to  use  them  they  fall  to  pieces. ^o 

Almost  a  century  later,  at  Fort  Laramie  in  present-day  Wyoming, 
John  Bordeau,  ferryman  and  blacksmith,  was  getting  ten  beaver 
skins  for  the  same  sort  of  inferior  hatchet  which  he  made  out  of 
old  wagon  tires  at  almost  no  cost — and  Bordeau  even  went  so  far 
as  to  stamp  his  products  with  his  initials  in  large  letters  so  that 
they  could  be  readily  identified  l^^ 

As  noted  elsewhere,  the  first  of  these  hatchets  to  come  to 
America  were  large  specimens,  almost  the  size  of  feUing  axes.  They 
weighed  two  or  three  pounds  each,  sometimes  even  more,  and  ran 

30  Quoted  in  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  8. 

'1  Carl  Russell,  op.  cit.,  270  citing  a  statement  by  a  contemporary  of 
Bordeau's  when  one  of  his  axes  was  plowed  up  in  Nebraska,  1890. 


20  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

to  lengths  of  seven  or  eight  inches  from  the  top  of  the  poll  to  the 
edge.  The  fact  that  inventories  listing  these  sizes  refer  to  them  as 
* 'hatchets"  leads  one  to  suppose  that  they  were  probably  intended 
to  be  fitted  by  the  Indians  with  short  hafts  and  wielded  with  one 
hand.  Photographs  of  Indian  women  in  Canada  using  such  hatch- 
ets, taken  as  late  as  1913,  tend  to  confirm  this  inference.  Most  of 
these  early  axes  seem  to  have  been  made  in  two  principal  European 
centers:  Utrecht  in  Holland,  which  is  mentioned  in  reports  by 
Dutch  traders  along  the  Hudson ;  and  Biscay  in  northern  Spain, 
which  seems  to  have  been  favored  by  both  the  French  and  the 
English.  Axes  were  also  purchased  in  other  European  areas, 
especially  in  France  and  England.  Apparently  the  Sheffield  and 
Birmingham  areas  of  England  began  to  displace  Biscay  as  a  source 
of  supply  for  British  traders  early  in  the  18 th  century.^^ 

Despite  the  fact  that  the  larger  sizes  continued  to  be  made 
throughout  the  whole  trade-axe  period,  some  modifications  did 
develop  which  can  occasionally  help  to  establish  a  date  or  area  of 
manufacture.  First  of  all,  there  was  a  trend  toward  smaller  sizes, 
which  would  be  easier  to  carry  in  the  belt  and  were  better  balanced 
as  a  weapon.  One  or  two  such  small-sized  heads  have  been  ex- 
cavated at  the  site  of  the  English  colony  at  Jamestown,  Virginia, 
indicating  that  they  were  known  before  1700,  but  it  appears  to 
have  been  the  first  or  second  decade  of  the  18  th  century  before  the 
smaller  hatchet  superseded  the  larger  one  completely  and  relegated 
it  to  the  position  of  squaw  axe. 

Another  development  is  the  appearance  of  the  so-called 
"American"  pattern.  This  followed  the  evolution  of  the  con- 
temporary full-sized  axe.  The  European  axe  which  the  first  colo- 
nists had  brought  with  them  was  an  inefficient  tool.  Because  there 
was  no  true  thickened  poll,  the  weight  was  centered  in  the  blade ; 
this  caused  the  blade  to  wobble  in  a  stroke.  Also,  it  lacked  the 
extra  power  that  a  heavy  poll  would  impart.  Since  tree  cutting 
was  an  important  activity  in  America,  considerable  attention  was 
given  to  improving  the  design  to  make  the  task  easier.  First  the 
blade  was  shortened  or  otherwise  lightened  by  piercings.  Then  an 
extra  piece  of  iron  was  welded  to  the  top  of  the  eye  to  form  a  true 
poll.  Ears  were  also  added  to  strengthen  the  attachment  of  the 
haft,  and,  incidentally,  to  improve  the  balance  by  adding  more 
weight  near  the  center  (see  Nos.  35  and  36).  Axes  of  this  type  seem 
to  have  first  appeared  in  fully  developed  form  sometime  between 

32  The  191 3  photograph  of  the  woman  with  the  "squaw  axe"  appears 
in  The  Beaver,  pubhshed  by  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  (Mar.j  1946), 
p.  26.  Carl  Russell,  op.  cit.,  305-309.  Innis,  op.  cit.,  15,  72.  Beauchamp, 
op.  cit.,  65.  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  4,  6.  O'Callaghan,  op.  cit.,  Ill,  164. 


THE   SIMPLE   HATCHET  21 

1725  and  1750,  and  hatchets  of  a  like  design  date  from  about  the 
same  period. ^^ 

In  making  the  new-style  hatchets,  the  same  basic  principles 
were  followed.  A  piece  of  steel  was  used  for  the  edge,  while  the  eye 
and  poll  were  formed  of  iron.  Usually  the  same  technique  as  em- 
ployed in  manufacturing  the  early  axes  was  used,  with  the  simple 
addition  of  an  extra  piece  of  iron  welded  on  for  the  poll.  Occasion- 
ally, some  of  the  new  hatchets  were  made  of  four  pieces :  the  steel 
edge,  pieces  of  iron  for  either  side  of  the  eye,  and  a  fourth  piece  for 
the  poll  {see  Nos.  40  and  306).  And  there  were  other  variations 
according  to  the  whim  and  skill  of  the  individual  smiths.  Some 
even  made  the  top  solid  and  drilled  out  the  eye,  while  in  the  19  th 
century  in  the  larger  factories  it  was  the  practice  to  stamp  out  the 
eye  with  a  water-powered  punch.  Always,  however,  a  separate  steel 
edge  was  welded  in.^* 

It  should  not  be  assumed  that  these  newer  and  better-balanced 
hatchets  superseded  the  older  polless  variety.  They  did  not,  and  in 
point  of  fact  were  always  in  the  minority  among  the  Indians, 
though  white  users  of  tomahawks  quickly  adopted  them. 

Among  the  other  variations  in  the  simple  hatchet  are  two 
which  are  indicative  of  specific  areas  of  origin,  and  deserve  special 
mention.  One  of  them,  the  so-called  "Missouri  war  hatchet,"  is  so 
distinctive  and  found  in  such  quantities  that  it  will  be  considered 
separately  in  Chapter  IV.  The  other  is  a  form  which  seems  to  be 
found  in  areas  of  Spanish  influence,  and  is  almost  diagnostic  of 
such  historical  relationship.  In  general,  this  type  resembles  the 
other  axes  except  that  it  has  a  rudimentary  poll  and  is  always 
made  in  three  pieces:  the  steel  edge,  plus  two  side  pieces.  These 
side  pieces  are  welded  together  around  the  edge  and  below  the 
eye,  and  then  are  joined  above  the  eye  in  a  ridge  or  crest  with  a 
noticeable  groove  along  the  top  {see  No.  39).  Both  full  axes  and 
hatchets  made  in  this  manner  are  found  in  the  Southwest,  where 
they  seem  to  have  been  used  entirely  as  tools.  Thus  far,  none  has 
been  reported  from  Florida  or  from  sites  elsewhere  in  the  United 
States. 

^  Henry  C.  Mercer,  Ancient  Carpenter's  Tools  (Doylestown,  Pa.,  2nd 
edition,  1950).  i-35- 

^  Ibid.  Park  Benjamin  (ed.),  Appleton's  Cyclopaedia  of  Applied  Me- 
chanics, 2  vols.  (N.Y.,  1880),  I,  107,  108.  One  Hundred  Years  of  Progress 
(Hartford,  Conn.,  1871),  339-342.  Horace  Greeley  and  others,  The  Great 
Industries  of  the  United  States  (Chicago  and  Cinn.,  1872),  122-133. 


CHAPTER  IV 
THE  MISSOURI  WAR  HATCHET 

ONE  of  the  tomahawk  patterns  that  has  been  given  a  specific 
name  with  considerable  justification  is  the  so-called  "Mis- 
souri war  hatchet."  Lewis  and  Clark  found  it  already  in  use 
among  the  Mandans  in  January,  1805,  and  subsequent  study  has 
indicated  that  it  was  popular  among  such  people  as  the  Iowa,  Sauk, 
Fox,  Kansa,  Pawnee,  Comanche,  Mandan,  Dakota,  Osage,  and 
Oto.  It  has  not  been  reported  from  the  East  or  South,  and  only 
rarely  shows  up  in  the  area  north  of  the  Great  Bend  of  the  Mis- 
souri River.  The  territory  along  that  river  below  the  bend  and 
above  its  juncture  with  the  Mississippi  seems  to  have  been  both 
the  center  of  its  popularity  and  the  outer  confines  of  its  use.^^ 

The  implement  itself  is  unusually  awkward  and  poorly  designed. 
It  seems  to  be  in  reality  a  variation  of  the  simple  hatchet,  but 
with  the  strength  and  utility  removed.  Apparently  it  reached  the 
area  via  the  French  sometime  during  the  18  th  century  and  there 
quickly  achieved  greater  popularity  than  any  other  form  of  hatch- 
et. William  Clark  made  a  drawing  of  the  axe  on  January  28,  1805, 
and  noted  that  several  Indians  had  visited  the  camp  seeking  to 
have  such  "war  hatchets"  made.  On  January  29,  he  noted  that 
the  expedition's  blacksmith  was  making  the  axes,  since  it  was  the 
only  way  they  could  obtain  corn.  [See  Plates  V  and  VI).  On 
February  5,  Meriwether  Lewis  described  the  axe  in  detail: 

[The  Mandans]  are  peculiarly  attached  to  a  battle  ax  formed  in  a 
very  inconvenient  manner  in  my  opinion,  it  is  fabricated  of  iron 
only,  the  blade  is  extremely  thin,  from  7  to  nine  inches  in  length 
and  from  4-I  to  6  Inches  on  its  edge  from  whence  the  sides  proceed 
nearly  in  a  straight  line  to  the  eye  where  its  width  is  generally  not 
more  than  an  inch — the  eye  is  round  &  about  an  inch  diameter — 
the  handle  seldom  more  than  fourteen  inches  in  length, the  whole 
weighing  about  one  pound — the  great  length  of  the  blade  of  this 
ax,  added  to  the  small  size  of  the  handle  renders  a  stroke  uncertain 
and  easily  avoided,  while  the  shortness  of  the  handel  must  render 
a  blow  much  less  forceable  even  if  well  directed,  and  still  more  in- 
convenient as  they  uniformly  use  this  instrument  in  action  on 
horseback. 3^ 

®5  Meriwether  Lewis  and  William  Clark,  Journals  of  the  Lewis  and 
Clark  Expedition,  1804-1806,  American  Philosophical  Society,  Codex  C, 
158,  163,  164.  3^  Ibid.,  163,  164. 

22 


THE   MISSOURI   WAR   HATCHET  23 

Clark's  mention  of  this  axe  as  a  "war  hatchet,"  and  Lewis's 
statement  that  it  was  wielded  on  horseback  are  particularly  inter- 
esting (if,  indeed,  they  are  accurate)  in  view  of  the  general  im- 
practicability of  this  type  of  tomahawk.  As  Lewis  noted,  it  was 
made  all  of  iron,  without  a  steel  edge,  and  with  an  extremely  thin 
blade  which  was  otherwise  poorly  designed  for  use.  Also,  many  of 
the  surviving  specimens  have  decorative  piercings  in  the  blades, 
which  further  weakens  them.  There  is  usually  no  indication  of  any 
sharpening  along  the  edge.  It  is  simply  left  square  and  blunt.  A 
study  of  physical  characteristics  alone  would  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  these  were  merely  ceremonial  objects — an  excellent  illustration 
of  the  fact  that  European  standards  may  not  always  be  used  in 
judging  the  use  an  Indian  may  have  had  for  an  object. 

Size  and  workmanship  vary  considerably  in  the  specimens  of 
the  Missouri  war  hatchet  which  have  been  studied  thus  far.  The 
average  axe  has  a  height  of  7f  inches  from  the  top  of  the  eye  to 
the  edge,  and  an  edge  width  of  4 J  inches;  but  some  specimens 
have  heights  as  great  as  loj  inches  and  blades  as  wide  as  6  inches. 
Most  display  simple  and  crude  workmanship,  but  an  occasional 
well-made  example  is  found,  with  decorative  forged  moldings 
around  the  eye  and  at  the  base  of  the  blade.  Among  the  pierced 
decorations,  the  heart  is  most  commonly  seen,  frequently  with  a 
curved  tip;  this  is  sometimes  called  a  "bleeding  heart."  Often 
there  will  be  punched  decorations  stamped  along  the  borders,  or 
forming  special  designs  in  the  center  of  the  blade.  The  hafts  of 
those  later  specimens  which  have  survived  are  usually  longer  than 
the  14  inches  mentioned  by  Lewis. 

The  Missouri  war  hatchet  had  a  popularity  span  of  somewhat 
more  than  fifty  years.  Since  Lewis  and  Clark  found  it  as  an  estab- 
lished pattern  in  1805,  it  was  undoubtedly  introduced  before  the 
end  of  the  18  th  century.  The  height  of  its  popularity  seems  to 
have  been  between  1810  and  1830,  but  Rudolph  Friedrich  Kurz 
sketched  an  Omaha  Indian  with  one  of  these  hatchets  in  his  hand 
at  Bellevue,  Nebraska,  as  late  as  185 1  and  some  were  unquestio- 
nably handed  down  as  heirlooms  or  for  ceremonial  use  in  even 
more  recent  times. ^^ 

3'  The  Kurz  drawing  is  reproduced  in  American  Anthropologist,  X, 
No.  I  (1910),  II. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  SPONTOON  TOMAHAWK 

THE  spontoon  tomahawk  received  its  name  because  the  blade 
resembles  that  of  the  military  espontoon,  a  polearm  carried 
during  most  of  the  i8th  century  by  commissioned  officers 
who  fought  on  foot.  The  espontoon  derived  from  the  partizan,  an 
officers'  spear  of  the  i6th  and  17  th  centuries,  and  actually  most 
tomahawks  of  this  type  resemble  the  earlier  partizan  more  closely 
than  the  18 th  century  spontoon.  Both  simple  tomahawks  and 
pipe-tomahawk  combinations  have  been  found  with  the  spontoon 
blade.  The  pipe  combination,  which  is  by  far  the  more  common 
form,  will  be  discussed  later  in  the  section  on  pipe  tomahawks 
[see  Chapter  X).  This  chapter  will  consider  only  the  distinctive 
blade  type. 

Characteristics  of  this  implement  are  a  spear-point  blade,  usu- 
ally symmetrical,  with  curling  flanges,  or  processes,  at  or  near  the 
base  [see  Fig.  3).  Usually  these  processes  curve 
upward  toward  the  haft,  but  upon  occasion 
(usually  in  later  specimens)  they  may  curve 
toward  the  point.  In  these  highly  developed 
late  specimens  the  curve  is  sometimes  complete 
so  that  the  distal  or  free  end  rejoins  the  blade, 
giving  the  effect  of  a  lobe  with  a  hole  through 
its  center.  In  some  specimens  this  hole  is 
omitted,  so  that  there  is  simply  a  spear  point 
with  a  lobed  base.  Some  19  th  century  versions 
of  the  spontoon  blade  omit  even  the  lobes, 
leaving  simply  a  symmetrical  kite-shaped  spear 
point.  For  some  unknown  reason  this  last 
Figure  ^  variant  is  often  named  the  "Minnewaukan" 

Spontoon  blade,  type  by  earlier  writers.  It  has  been  encountered 
most  frequently  in  Wisconsin  and  the  tier  of 
states  between  the  Mississippi  River  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Other  names  by  which  the  spontoon-bladed  tomahawks  have 
been  called  include  "dagger-bladed,"  "diamond-bladed,"  and 
"French  type."  There  is  considerable  justification  for  the  latter 
designation,  since  all  available  evidence  seems  to  indicate  a  French 
origin  for  the  design.  Many  of  the  earlier  writers  jumped  to  the 

24 


THE   SPONTOON   TOMAHAWK  25 

conclusion  that  they  were  French  because  they  professed  to  see  a 
resemblance  to  the  fleur-de-lys  in  the  shape  of  the  blade.  Since  this 
resemblance  is  a  bit  far-fetched  and  since  the  fleur-de-lys  was  widely 
used  in  Europe  outside  France,  this  would  hardly  constitute  a 
justification  for  the  association.  The  best  support  lies  in  the  fact 
that  almost  all  of  the  earliest  specimens  are  found  in  areas  where 
the  French  influence  was  strong:  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley  and  the 
Lake  Champlain  waterway,  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  In  all  of  these  areas  the  concentration  is 
heavy.  Others  are  found  on  the  borders  of  these  regions  or  in 
locations  that  may  be  explained  by  migrations  or  trade.  One  group 
of  early  specimens  comes  from  the  Lake  George  battlefield  of 
1755  where  the  Indian  allies  of  the  French  were  especially  active. 
Other  early  specimens  come  from  Tunica  burials  in  Mississippi. 
Since  only  the  French  were  particularly  active  in  this  latter  region 
in  the  18  th  century,  the  origin  of  these  tomahawks  would  seem  to 
be  reasonably  well  established. ^^ 

It  should  not  be  assumed  from  this  that  all  hatchets  of  this 
type  are  presumed  to  be  of  French  manufacture.  After  the  form 
became  popular  it  was  undoubtedly  made  also  by  the  British  and 
certainly  by  the  Americans.  William  Clark,  in  fact,  implies  that 
the  blacksmith  with  the  Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition  made  some 
tomahawks  of  this  type  for  the  Mandans  who  specifically  requested 
it.^^  Probably  all  tomahawks  of  this  type  made  after  1763,  when 
Great  Britain  finally  wrested  control  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
North  American  continent  from  France,  were  of  British,  American, 
or  possibly  Canadian  manufacture,  except  for  the  very  few  which 
might  have  come  in  through  Louisiana.  And  even  this  inlet  for 
French  goods  was  sealed  off  after  the  Louisiana  Purchase  of  1803. 
It  is  barely  possible  that  some  such  tomahawks  might  have  been 
made  in  France  on  the  order  of  an  American  or  British  trading 
company,  but  this  possibility  is  highly  unlikely  and  may  weU  be 
disregaided. 

All  evidence  seems  to  indicate  that  the  spontoon  form  ap- 
peared early  in  the  18  th  century.  This  is  corroborated  by  the 
recoveries  from  the  Tunica  cemeteries  in  Mississippi,  and  the  finds 
at  the  Lake  George  battlefield.  The  earliest  forms  were  simple 
narrow  blades  often  curved  slightly  toward  the  rear.  The  basal 

^  West,  op.  cit.,  I,  320,  321.  James  A.  Ford,  "Analysis  of  Indian  Village 
Site  Collections  from  Louisiana  and  Mississippi,"  Louisiana  Geological 
Survey,  Anthrofological  Study  No.  2  (Nov.,  1936),  139.  A  group  of  these 
axes  from  the  Lake  George  battlefield  is  in  the  Fort  Ticonderoga  Museum. 
Carl  Russell,  op.  cit.,  293. 

3®  Lewis  and  Clark,  op.  cit.,  158-164. 


26  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

processes  were  short,  set  close  to  the  eye,  and  almost  always  curved 
up  towards  the  haft.  Occasionally  they  made  a  complete  loop. 
There  was  no  true  thickened  poll.  Unfortunately,  no  specimens  from 
either  Tunica  or  the  Lake  George  battlefield  are  included  in  this 
study,  but  No.  259  illustrates  the  form. 

The  form  found  by  Lewis  and  Clark  among  the  Mandans  was 
quite  large,  "12  to  15  inches  in  length  [height]"  according  to  their 
sketch  and  Lewis's  description,  in  which  he  termed  it  an  "older 
fassion"  and  still  more  inconvenient  than  the  Missouri  war  hatchet. 
He  also  indicated  that  it  was  frequently  pierced  for  ornamentation 
with  "two,  three  or  more  small  circular  holes.  "*^ 

Later  in  the  19  th  century  simple  diamond-  or  kite-shaped 
blades  developed,  as  well  as  exaggerated  forms  with  long  narrow 
stems  between  the  eye  and  the  point  at  which  the  expansion  of  the 
blade  began.  The  arms  or  processes  also  frequently  became  more 
elaborate.  Decorative  perforations  aside  from  the  simple  circular 
holes  also  appear  about  this  time. 

In  most  instances,  the  spontoon  tomahawk  was  made  of  one 
piece  of  iron  looped  over  a  bar  and  welded  to  form  the  eye.  Though 
a  very  few  specimens  are  known  which  seem  to  have  been  made  of 
a  low  grade  steel,  no  specimen  with  a  deliberately  added  steel  edge 
has  been  encountered.  The  lack  of  a  steel  edge  is  not  surprising. 
These  tomahawks  were  weapons  in  their  early  functional  years. 
Because  of  their  design  they  would  have  had  no  value  as  wood- 
cutting tools,  but  the  soft  iron  blade  would  inflict  a  serious  wound 
in  combat.  Thus,  a  sharp  cutting  edge  of  the  type  needed  for 
cutting  wood  was  not  necessary.  Since  later  specimens  seem  to  have 
been  primarily  ceremonial  in  use,  they  also  required  no  edge, 
and  plain  iron  remained  entirely  sufficient  for  Indian  needs.  For 
those  specimens  combined  with  pipes,  other  metals  such  as  pewter 
and  brass  were  commonly  used  from  at  least  1750  through  the 
end  of  the  19  th  century,  but  for  these  simple  hatchets  without 
pipes,  iron  remained  standard. 

*o  Ibid.,  164,  165. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  HALBERD  OR  "BATTLE  AXE"  TOMAHAWK 


ANOTHER  variety  of  tomahawk  named  after  a  European  pole- 
arm  is  the  halberd  type.  This  was  a  polearm  weapon  con- 
sisting of  an  axe  blade  with  an  opposing  spike  or  hook,  and 
crowned  with  a  spear  point  {see  Fig.  4).  Mounted  on  a  long  haft, 
it  had  developed  as  a  weapon  in  the  late  14  th  century.  By  the 
18  th  century  it  had  become  largely  a  ceremonial  arm  carried  by 
sergeants  in  most  armies  and  by  honor  guards  and  court  officials. 
On  a  short  haft,  it  resembled  the  layman's  conception  of  a  battle 
axe ;  thus,  both  names  have  been  applied  to  tomahawks  of  this 
classification. 

The  halberd  tomahawk  developed  early  in  the  18  th  century 
and  was  apparently  of  British  origin.  Most  surviving  specimens 
come  from  the  areas  of  New  York  and  New 
England  where  British  influence  was  strong, 
and  a  very  few  specimens  are  known  from 
the  southern  Great  Lakes  area  that  may  have 
migrated  there  from  the  east.  At  least  one 
specimen  has  been  recorded  as  having  been 
made  by  R.  Beatty  of  Pennsylvania  during 
the  second  quarter  of  the  century,  and  is 
reputed  to  have  belonged  to  Daniel  Boone, 
who  took  it  with  him  to  Missouri  toward  the 
end  of  his  life. 

An  excellent  contemporary  illustration  of 
the  halberd  tomahawk  which  is  also  further 
evidence  of  its  British  origin  is  found  in  the 
mezzotint  portrait  of  the  Mohawk  chief.  King 
Hendrick,  published  in  London  prior  to  his 
death  at  the  Battle  of  Lake  George  in  1755  {see  PI.  VH). 

The  halberd  tomahawk  was  made  in  a  manner  quite  different 
from  the  types  previously  described.  Usually  forged  from  one 
piece  of  steel,  it  was  normally  quite  thin  and  light.  There  are 
examples  made  in  two  or  more  pieces,  however,  and  in  these  in- 
stances the  blade  and  spike  were  usually  forged  separately  from 
two  or  three  pieces  of  metal,  and  then  welded  to  the  spear  point 
and  shank,  which  were  made  from  one  piece.  One  specimen  in  the 


Figure  4. 
Halberd  blade. 


27 


28  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

Museum  of  the  American  Indian  appears  to  have  been  made  from 
an  actual  halberd  {see  No.  54). 

A  special  characteristic  of  this  form  of  tomahawk  is  that  it  was 
commonly  attached  to  the  haft  by  driving  a  shank  into  the  wood. 
This  shank,  usually  forged  as  one  piece  with  the  rest  of  the  head, 
was  often  sharpened  for  easier  penetration  and  sometimes  roughen- 
ed or  barbed  to  make  it  hold  more  securely.  A  ferrule  would  also 
normally  be  placed  around  the  forward  end  of  the  wooden  haft  to 
strengthen  the  joint.  In  this  connection,  it  might  be  mentioned 
that  one  object  frequently  mistaken  for  a  halberd  tomahawk  or, 
sometimes  for  a  "Viking  halberd,"  is  the  plug  cutter  used  for  Battle 
Ax  Plug  Tobacco  in  the  early  1890's.  Although  slight  variations 
exist,  this  cutter  is  usually  made  in  two  pieces — a  cast  iron  section 
including  the  socket  and  spike,  and  a  thin  steel  edge  attached 
by  means  of  two  rivets  or  screws. ^^  It  is  fastened  to  a  wooden 
cutting  board,  as  shown  in  Plate  XIII. 

As  a  form,  the  halberd  tomahawk  did  not  last  very  long.  Less 
than  fifty  years  would  probably  cover  its  active  life.  Some  speci- 
mens are  well  balanced  and  practical,  but  many  are  fantastically 
designed  and  poorly  balanced.  Light  hooks  with  no  point  or  edge 
are  found  in  place  of  the  spike,  and  extra-long  spear  points,  some- 
times with  barbed  ends,  made  them  difficult  to  carry.  In  fact,  it 
has  been  asserted  that  the  inconvenience  caused  by  these  spear 
points  was  the  principal  reason  for  the  abandonment  of  this  type. 
Since  tomahawks  were  usually  carried  thrust  through  the  belt  at 
the  right  side  and  slightly  to  the  rear,  the  spear  point  could  thus 
easily  become  a  nuisance  or  even  a  danger.  The  spear  point  actually 
was  of  little  or  no  value  in  fighting ;  it  did  offer  one  more  possibility 
of  striking  a  victim  with  a  cutting  edge  if  thrown  end-over-end, 
but  it  sometimes  hindered  a  stroke  when  held  in  the  hand.  Halberd 
tomahawks  also  were  weapons  only,  since  they  were  too  light  for 
effective  chopping  even  of  small  branches.  More  efficient  toma- 
hawks that  could  also  be  used  as  tools  were  available,  and  so  the 
halberd  type  disappeared. 

*i  R.  W.  Breckenridge,  "Norse  Halberds,"  American  Anthropologist, 
LVII,  No.  I,  Part  I  (Feb.,  1955),  129-131.  Letter  from  V.  J.  Boor,  Assistant 
Advertising  Manager  of  the  American  Tobacco  Company,  to  Charlie  R. 
Steen,  Apr.  16,  1953. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  SPIKED  TOMAHAWK 

A  companion  of  the  halberd  tomahawk  and  its  successor  was 
the  spiked  tomahawk.  The  use  of  hatchets  and  axes  with 
spikes  on  their  polls  as  fighting  weapons — and  particularly 
as  naval  boarding  axes — was  common  to  all  nations  of  western 
Europe,  but  the  British  appear  to  have  been  responsible  for  the 
introduction  of  the  light  hatchet,  with  a  spiked  poll,  to  the 
American  Indian. 

As  might  be  expected  with  an  arm  of  British  origin,  its  area 
of  use  was  within  the  English  sphere  of  influence.  Since  it  was  also 
an  early  form  which  developed  shortly  after  1700,  achieved  its 
greatest  popularity  about  the  middle  of  the  century,  and  began  to 
disappear  shortly  after  1800,  it  was  confined  largely  to  the  Atlantic 
coastal  region.  Within  that  territory  it  is  found  principally  in  the 
area  north  of  Pennsylvania,  although  a  few  are  encountered  as  far 
south  as  Virginia.  A  small  number  have  been  recovered  from  sites 
in  Michigan,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois,  where  the  British  were 
active  following  the  French  and  Indian  War,  and  a  very  few 
scattered  specimens  have  been  found  further  west,  possibly  as  a 
result  of  trade  or  migration. 

The  spiked  tomahawk  served  well  as  both  a  tool  and  a  weapon. 
The  spike  was  useful  in  driving  small  holes,  in  loosening  ground, 
in  forcing  openings,  and  for  many  other  needs.  Some  spikes  were 
curved  and  sharpened  along  the  edge  like  a  pruning  knife,  thus 
providing  an  effective  cutting  edge  for  use  in  situations  where  the 
normal  edge  could  not  operate.  In  some  instances  the  spike  was 
simply  a  hook  with  a  point  on  the  end,  but  without  an  edge,  so  that 
it  could  be  used  for  catching  and  hauling.  In  warfare,  the  spike 
allowed  the  use  of  a  backstroke  and  the  chance  for  deep  penetration 
in  a  narrow  area,  as  happened  on  one  occasion  during  a  fight  in 
1778  at  Harbert's  Block  House,  in  what  is  now  West  Virginia.  On 
this  occasion,  a  young  borderman  named  Edward  Cunningham  is 
reported  to  have  wrested  a  tomahawk  from  an  attacking  Indian, 
and  driven  the  long  spike  deep  into  his  back.*2  Further  evidence 
of  their  use  in  warfare  is  suggested  by   the  large  numbers  of 

*2  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  20,  21,  citing  Alexander  Withers,  Chronicles  of 
Border  Warfare,  7th  edition  (Cinn.,  1920),  238. 

29 


30 


AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 


spiked  tomahawks  recovered  at  Fort  Ticonderoga,  and  on  the 

Lake  George  Battlefield;  these  are  now  on  display  at  the  Fort 

Ticonderoga  Museum.  In  the  Rhode  Island  Historical  Society 

there  is  a  complete  specimen  which  was 

carried  by  a  soldier  in  the  colonial  wars. 

In  early  examples,  spiked  tomahawks 
were  sometimes  made  with  shanks  for  in- 
sertion into  a  wooden  shaft  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  the  usual  halberd  type. 
In  such  instances  they  were  normally  forged 
from  one  piece  of  iron  or  steel.  One  specimen 
found  near  Rome,  New  York,  seems  to  have 
been  made  by  applying  a  small  conical  spike 
to  a  standard  half  axe.*^  Another,  found  in 
Pennsylvania,  was  made  entirely  of  cast 
brass.  These  are  exceptions,  for  most  spiked 
axes  were  made  of  two  or  three  parts. 
Usually  two  pieces  were  welded  together 
around  an  iron  handle  pattern  to  form  the 
eye;  then,  if  desired,  a  piece  of  steel  was 
fastened  between  them  to  form  the  edge 
{see  Fig.  5).  Sizes  varied  tremendously,  from 
that  of  a  small  hatchet  to  the  dimensions  of  the  full  axe.  The 
weight,  however,  remained  relatively  light,  so  that  they  could 
be  used  with  one  hand. 


Figure  5. 
Construction  of  a  spiked 
hatchet  with  two  pieces 
of  iron  and  a  steel  edge. 


*3  Beauchamp,  op.  cit.,  65.  The  specimen  is  in  the  U.S.  National  Museum. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
TOMAHAWKS  WITH  HAMMER  POLLS 

CLOSELY  akin  to  the  spiked  tomahawks  were  a  small  group  of 
implements  with  hammers  on  their  polls.  Hatchets  with  such 
hammers,  including  lathing  and  shingling  hatchets,  had  been 
standard  tools  in  Europe,  and  some  of  the  examples  found  in  In- 
dian sites  seem  to  have  been  intended  originally  as  tools  {see  Figs.  6 
and  7).  Others  quite  definitely  were  designed  to  be  used  for  military 
or  ceremonial  purposes.  In  some  of  these  the  hammer  head  is  too 
small  in  diameter  to  have  been  used  for  efficient  pounding  and  must 
have  served  somewhat  as  a  dull  spike.  In  others  the  mouldings  are 
decorative,  and  there  are  inlays  and  engraved  decorations  on  the 
blades  which  indicate  such  uses.  One  specimen  is  even  inscribed 
"To  your  arms  Solder,"  and  bears  a  silver  crescent  inlay  engraved 
with  an  Indian  name  which  is  now  so  worn  as  to  be  illegible 
(see  No.  92). 


Figure  6. 
Lathing  hatchet. 


Figure  7. 
Shingling  hatchet. 


31 


CHAPTER  IX 
CELTIFORM  TOMAHAWKS 

ONE  of  the  oldest  forms  of  the  tomahawk  is  the  stone  axe 
blade  lashed  to  a  wooden  haft.  These  are  quite  common  in 
archeological  excavations,  and  form  a  specific  type  to  which 
the  name  celt  has  been  applied  {see  Nos.  8  and  9).  In  those  regions 
where  local  circumstances  permitted,  occasional  celts  were  made  of 
native  copper  in  prehistoric  times.  These  implements  performed  the 
dual  services  of  tool  and  weapon,  and  with  them  the  Indian  accom- 
plished most  of  his  wood  cutting  and  combat. 

An  interesting  version  of  the  trade  tomahawk  which  reflects 
this  earlier  implement  is  the  simple  iron  celt.  Sometimes  these 
were  of  European  manufacture,  yet  in  many  instances  the  Indian 
himself  fashioned  them  from  bits  of  iron  obtained  from  whites. 
This  was  never  a  widely  popular  type,  yet  such  celtiform  tomahawks 
do  appear  in  scattered  examples  over  a  wide  part  of  the  United 
States,  and  represent  a  considerable  period  of  usage.  The  Great 
Lakes  region  and  the  Northeast,  where  the  copper  celt  was  most 
frequently  made,  have  produced  examples  of  the  iron  celtiform 
tomahawk  dating  from  the  18  th  century.  One  has  been  found  in 
Florida,  and  a  few  have  been  discovered  among  the  Plains  and 
Mountain  tribes  as  late  as  the  1840's.  One  very  late  specimen, 
obviously  only  of  ceremonial  importance,  has  a  thin  blade  cut 
from  sheet  copper  [see  No.  105). 


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AMERICAN  ENGRAVED  POWDER  HORN  OF  THE  MID-i8tH  CENTURY, 
ILLUSTRATING  THE  GUNSTOCK  CLUB,  THE  BALL-HEADED  CLUB, 
AND    THE    SIMPLE    BELT    AXE    CARRIED    BY    INDIAN    WARRIORS. 


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EARLY   POLEARMS.     l:  17"     mai/hf:  23/2231 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  PIPE  TOMAHAWK 

OF  all  the  types  of  tomahawks,  by  far  the  most  popular  was 
the  pipe  tomahawk.  No  other  form  was  made  in  so  many 
different  designs,  nor  of  as  many  different  materials.  Ex- 
cepting for  the  simple  hatchet  or  belt  axe,  none  was  made  for  so 
long  a  period  nor  in  such  large  numbers.  Here  the  symbols  of 
war  and  peace  were  combined  in  a  single  instrument,  which 
quickly  became  a  prized  possession.  Henry  Timberlake  observed 
it  among  the  Cherokees  in  the  1750's,  and  declared:  "This  is 
one  of  their  most  useful  pieces  of  field-furniture,  serving  all  the 
offices  of  hatchet,  pipe,  and  sword."  He  might  have  added  the 
symbolic  power  of  the  mace  as  well,  for  the  ceremonial  functions 
together  with  the  smoking  rituals  permitted  the  survival  of 
the  pipe  tomahawk  well  after  its  usefulness  as  a  weapon  had 
diminished.** 

The  identity,  and  even  the  nationality,  of  the  genius  who 
invented  the  pipe  tomahawk  is  unknown.  In  all  probability  it 
was  some  Englishman  who  visualized,  even  before  the  turn  of 
the  18  th  century,  what  a  great  attraction  such  an  instrument 
would  have  in  trade  and  Indian  affairs  in  general.  At  any  rate, 
pipe  tomahawks,  or  "smoak  tomahawks,"  as  they  were  then  called 
by  the  English,  were  known  within  a  few  years  thereafter.  When 
J.  Simon  engraved  the  portraits  of  the  'Tour  Kings  of  Canada" 
(they  were  Iroquois  chiefs)  who  visited  London  in  1709-1710  with 
Peter  Schuyler,  he  included  what  may  have  been  pipe  tomahawks 
with  symmetrically  flaring  blades  among  their  accoutrements  {see 
PI.  IX),  and  a  similar  tomahawk  is  shown  in  a  posthumous  portrait 
of  King  Philip  which  appears  in  Thomas  Church's  Entertaining 
Passages  Relating  to  Philip's  War  published  in  Boston  in  1716.  By 
1750,  pipe  tomahawks  were  common  though  relatively  expensive 
items  in  trade  and  treaty  lists  in  the  East,  running  from  12  to 
20  shillings  for  fine  specimens,  as  compared  with  3  shillings  for  the 
simple  hatchets.  Once  known  and  available,  their  popularity  was 
never  seriously  challenged.*^ 

**  Timberlake,  op.  cit.,  77,  78. 

*5  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  9,  13,  et  passim.  Carl  Russell,  op.  cit.  West, 
op.  cit.,  I,  317-325- 

3  33 


34  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

The  earliest  of  the  pipe  tomahawks  manufactured  by  Europe- 
ans were  fashioned  from  iron  and  steel,  and  these  materials  con- 
tinue to  be  most  commonly  used  up  to  the  present  day.  By  1750, 
brass  tomahawks  with  inletted  steel  edges  were  known,  and  they 
continued  in  parallel  use  with  the  iron  types  until  about  1830, 
after  which  date  the  steel  edge  was  generally  omitted.  The  com- 
bination of  brass  and  steel  was  expensive  because  of  the  extra  work 
involved  in  careful  inletting  and  joining,  and  as  the  pipe  tomahawk 
declined  in  importance  as  a  weapon,  the  steel  edge  was  eliminated 
in  favor  of  all-brass  heads.  An  occasional  specimen  is  found  from 
a  later  date,  but  it  is  a  rarity.  Pipe  tomahawks  made  of  pewter 
also  are  found  in  a  variety  of  styles  for  a  period  of  at  least  a 
century,  from  about  1800  to  1900.  In  no  instance,  however,  has  a 
pewter  head  been  found  in  combination  with  a  steel  edge.  Cast 
iron  also  has  been  used  in  very  recent  specimens  for  ceremonial 
purposes,  and,  for  a  short  time  around  1900,  heads  made  of 
nickel-plated  brass  were  manufactured. 

Indians  also  made  pipe  tomahawks  for  their  own  use,  although 
apparently  this  was  always  on  a  small  scale.  A  portrait  of  the  Seneca 
chief ,  Cornplanter,  painted  by  Frederic  Bartoli  in  1796(5^^  Pl.VIII), 
illustrates  a  pipe  tomahawk  which  seems  to  have  been  assembled 
from  a  spiked  hatchet  of  exaggerated  form  and  a  clay  pipe.  From 
this  picture  it  appears  that  the  haft  of  the  hatchet  had  been 
pierced  to  form  a  stem,  and  the  pipe  bowl  simply  inserted  in  the 
end  opposite  the  mouthpiece.  This  would  have  been  a  simple  way 
of  making  a  pipe  tomahawk  combination,  and  may  well  have  been 
practiced  more  than  is  now  realized,  since  the  bulk  of  simple 
hatchets  and  spiked  tomahawks  that  have  survived  are  archeologi- 
cal  specimens  of  which  only  the  iron  heads  remain.  It  is  also  entire- 
ly probable  that  some  brass  and  pewter  specimens  were  made  by 
the  Indians,  for  they  had  been  capable  of  casting  both  metals 
since  the  middle  of  the  17  th  century.  When  John  C.  Ewers  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  was  working  among  the  Plains  Indians, 
he  was  told  that  they  had  cast  pewter  tomahawks  in  wooden 
molds  until  about  1900.  As  blacksmiths  were  sent  to  live  with  the 
various  tribes,  some  Indians  undoubtedly  learned  to  forge  iron, 
and  one  pipe  tomahawk  in  the  Museum  of  the  American  Indian 
is  known  to  have  been  the  work  of  such  a  Chickasaw  blacksmith 
{see'No.  131).  Later,  catlinite  became  popular  for  this  purpose,  and 
decadent  specimens  are  still  being  made  for  the  tourist  trade.^^ 

All  types  of  blades  were  used  in  combinations  with  the  pipe. 
Cornplanter's  spiked  pipe  tomahawk  has  already  been  mentioned. 
In  the  collections  of  the  Museum  of  the  American  Indian  and 

*^  West,  op.  cit.,  I,  317-325.  Statement  by  John  C.  Ewers  to  the  author. 


THE   PIPE   TOMAHAWK  35 

the  U.  S.  National  Museum  are  halberd-type  tomahawks  with 
detachable  pipe  bowls,  which  may  be  screwed  into  place  as  desired 
(see  Nos.  107,  108).  The  symmetrically  flaring  hatchet  blade  is 
known  in  the  earliest  pictures  of  pipe  tomahawks.  The  spontoon 
blade  is  pictured  with  a  pipe  as  early  as  1757,  and  this  combi- 
nation continued  in  common  use  until  after  1900.  The  half -hatchet 
form,  with  an  outward  flare  on  the  side  toward  the  hand  only,  was 
undoubtedly  the  most  common  blade  used,  especially  among  the 
English  specimens,  until  it  was  surpassed  by  the  thin  blades  with 
expanding  straight  sides  of  the  so-called  "Plains  Indian  type"  that 
became  popular  after  1850.^^ 

The  earliest  of  the  pipe  tomahawks  were  large  sturdy  imple- 
ments, useful  as  weapons  or  tools  as  well  as  for  smoking  and 
ceremonial  purposes.  The  eye  was  large,  to  receive  a  haft  strong 
enough  to  deal  a  heavy  blow  without  snapping,  even  though  there 
was  a  hollow  channel  running  through  it.  Usually  this  eye  was 
shaped  like  a  teardrop  with  the  point  down  towards  the  blade. 
Some,  however,  were  oval.  As  time  passed,  the  eye  tended  to 
become  more  circular  and  smaller  until,  about  1815-1830,  some 
specimens  were  made  with  round  eyes  a  scant  five-eighths  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  In  another  line  of  development,  the  oval  eye 
became  first  straight  sided,  or  a  pointed  ellipse,  and  then  diamond 
shaped.  By  1850,  the  diamond  form  was  almost  universal. 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  eye  is  the  fact  that  in  almost  all 
forms  it  tapers  slightly  toward  the  rear  or  hand  side.  This  was  done 
because  the  haft  also  tapered  and  was  normally  inserted  from  the 
front,  in  the  manner  of  a  pick  handle  today.  The  mouth  end  was 
inserted  first,  and  the  entire  haft  passed  through  the  eye  until  the 
head  lodged  in  place,  just  short  of  the  forward  end  of  the  haft.  A 
few  specimens  are  encountered  with  eyes  which  do  not  taper ;  these 
are  usually  late  pieces,  and  a  very  few  are  known  in  which  the 
haft  actually  was  cut  down  and  inserted  from  the  back.  These  are 
the  exceptions  to  the  rule,  however,  and  either  is  a  cause  for  im- 
mediate suspicion  that  the  whole  piece — or  at  least  the  haft — may 
be  modern,  unless  all  the  other  evidence  outweighs  it. 

Pipe  bowls  evolved  in  shape,  as  did  blade  forms  and  eye  open- 
ings. The  early  bowls  were  short  and  of  large  diameter ;  the  sides 
were  rounded,  and  they  usually  tapered  slightly  inward  toward 
the  top.  Gradually  the  bowls  became  taller,  the  sides  became 
straighter,  and  the  diameter  decreased.  By  1850  a  straight-sided 
or  slightly  barrel-shaped  bowl  with  a  single  molding  at  top  and 
bottom  was  standard.  Thereafter,  forms  became  even  more  ex- 

*'  The  pipe  tomahawk  with  spontoon  blade  is  shown  in  Thomas  Jeffery, 
Collection  of  the  Dresses  of  Different  Nations,  (London,  1 757-1 772). 


36  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

treme  until,  by  the  end  of  the  century,  an  attenuated  vase  shape 
resulted.  Throughout  the  entire  period  other  forms  of  the  bowl  are 
encountered  with  hexagonal,  octagonal,  or  otherwise  faceted  sides. 
But  in  all  forms,  the  general  progression  from  short  and  wide  to 
tall  and  slender  seems  to  hold  true. 

The  addition  of  the  pipe  bowl  created  new  problems  for  the 
tomahawk  maker.  Sometimes  he  made  the  axe  and  bowl  separately 
and  then  joined  them,  and  at  other  times  he  adopted  an  entirely 
different  manufacturing  technique,  making  the  entire  unit  in  one 
piece. 

There  were  several  ways  of  manufacturing  a  bowl  and  axe  of 
iron  separately  and  then  attaching  them.  Usually  the  smith  made 
the  desired  type  of  blade  in  the  manner  usual  for  that  pattern. 
Then  he  forged  the  bowl,  occasionally  shaping  it  from  a  solid 
block ;  more  often  he  wrapped  a  fiat  piece  of  iron  around  a  mandrel 
and  welded  it.  The  bowl  could  then  be  keyed  and  mortised  to  the 
poll  of  the  axe  and  brazed  or  welded  in  place.  Some  specimens  have 
also  been  found  in  which  a  tube  from  the  bowl  was  passed  through 
a  hole  in  the  poll  and  riveted  inside  the  eye.  Some  bowls  were 
threaded  so  that  they  could  be  screwed  into  the  poll  of  the  axe. 
One  specimen  in  the  Museum  of  the  American  Indian  has  a  pipe 
bowl  that  can  be  unscrewed  and  replaced  with  a  hammer,  which 
is  similarly  threaded  {see  No.  215). 

If  an  iron  pipe  tomahawk  was  to  be  forged  in  one  piece,  the 
smith  usually  began  by  making  a  tube.  If  an  old  gun  barrel  was 
available,  he  could  use  a  section  of  that  and  thus  save  the  first 
step.  Rifle  barrels  were  preferred  because  they  were  thicker  and 
thereby  provided  more  metal  to  work  with  than  the  thin  musket 
barrels.  Once  a  tube  of  the  proper  length  was  ready,  the  base  of 
the  bowl  was  necked-in  and  a  rough  shape  given  to  the  bowl.  Then 
two  cuts  were  made  opposite  each  other  just  below  the  neck  and 
the  sides  of  the  tube  in  the  area  of  the  cuts  flattened  out  and 
shaped  to  form  the  eye.  An  iron  handle  form  was  put  in  the  eye  to 
hold  its  shape,  and  the  remaining  tube  below  was  flattened  and 
shaped  to  form  the  blade  (see  Fig.  8).  If  desired,  a  piece  of  steel  for 
the  edge  was  sandwiched  in  and  welded  to  complete  the  job.  Pipe 
tomahawks  made  from  rifle  barrels  in  this  fashion  can  be  readily 
recognized  by  the  traces  of  rifling  still  inside  the  bowl. 

Some  iron  pipe  tomahawks  were  cast,  but  these  were  usually 
late  pieces  for  ceremonial  purposes  only  and  were  not  intended  for 
use  as  either  tool  or  weapon.  With  brass  and  pewter  pipe  toma- 
hawks, casting,  of  course,  was  the  normal  procedure,  and  usually 
these  were  made  in  one  piece.  In  some  brass  specimens,  however, 
the  bowls  were  made  separately  and  threaded  to  screw  in  place. 


THE   PIPE   TOMAHAWK 


37 


Iron  molds  were  the  rule,  though  sand  also  seems  to  have  been 
used  occasionally.  Some  of  the  pewter  axes  may  have  been  cast  in 
stone  molds  and,  impractical  as  it  may  seem,  the  reference  to 
wooden  molds  mentioned  above  should  be  recalled. 


^s^ 


Figure  8. 
Method  of  forging  a  pipe  tomahawk  in  one  piece  from  an  iron  tube. 


The  brass  tomahawks  with  steel  edges  required  careful  joining. 
Normally  the  edge  was  formed  with  a  dovetail  projection  in  the 
center  matching  a  like  opening  in  the  brass  part.  This  prevented 
forward  or  back  motion.  To  prevent  movement  from  side  to  side, 
grooves  were  opened  in  the  sides  of  the  cut  in  the  head,  and  the 
edges  of  the  steel  to  be  joined  were  tapered.  These  tapered  edges 
were  forced  into  the  grooves  in  the  head,  and  the  brass  was  ham- 
mered down  over  them.  To  complete  the  joint,  melted  tin,  solder 
or  pewter  was  used  as  a  seal.  In  some  instances  brass  rivets  were 
driven  through  the  head  above  the  joint  for  further  strength.  In 
rare  instances  the  edge  was  simply  riveted  to  the  head  without 
dovetailing;  in  late  specimens  the  edge  was  simply  inserted  in  a 
groove  in  the  lower  edge  of  the  head,  or  even  placed  in  a  mold  and 
the  brass  head  cast  around  it. 

Hafts  or  stems  were  almost  always  made  of  hardwood.  If  made 
in  Europe,  or  by  a  white  man  in  America,  any  sort  of  tough  hard- 


^S  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

wood  might  be  selected,  though  ash,  walnut,  maple,  or  hickory 
seem  to  have  been  preferred.  The  hole  was  then  drilled  through 
from  end  to  end.  The  Indian,  lacking  such  drills,  usually  selected 
ash  and  burned  the  pith  out  with  hot  wires  to  make  the  hole.  This 
hole  went  completely  through  from  one  end  to  the  other.  A  bit  of 
rawhide  or  occasionally  a  wood  or  metal  plug  closed  the  forward 
end.  In  decorated  specimens  a  metal  cap  might  cover  the  entire 
end  of  the  haft  beyond  the  head.  At  the  end  of  the  haft  designed  to 
be  placed  in  the  mouth,  the  wood  was  narrowed  to  a  convenient 
size.  Sometimes  a  separate  mouthpiece  was  added;  this  might  be 
a  metal  inlay  or  a  carved  bone,  ivory  or  horn  piece  the  diameter  of 
the  haft,  or  it  might  be  a  small  metal  tube  (perhaps  fashioned 
from  a  cartridge  case) ,  the  quill  of  a  feather,  or  a  reed  inserted  in 
the  hole  itself.  Around  the  haft  where  it  lodged  inside  the  eye  of 
the  head  was  wrapped  a  gasket  or  shim  of  paper-thin  leather ;  this 
gasket,  almost  always  present  on  early  specimens  and  character- 
istically charred,  is  almost  impossible  to  reproduce.  Thus,  along 
with  the  proper  taper  of  the  haft,  it  offers  a  good  clue  to  the 
authenticity  of  the  stem.  In  late  specimens  not  designed  for  use, 
this  gasket  was  sometimes  of  cloth. 

Hafts  were  decorated  in  a  number  of  ways  according  to  the 
abilities  of  the  maker  and  the  customs  of  the  tribe.  In  the  East  the 
earliest  specimens  from  the  period  before  1800  were  normally 
polished  smooth  and  slightly  cigar  shaped  toward  the  mouth  end. 
Decoration  consisted  primarily  of  metal  inlays  and  bands  of  lead, 
pewter,  brass  or  silver  as  a  rule.  Sometimes  incised  pictographs  or 
symbols  are  encountered,  but  these  are  less  common.  Paint  was 
undoubtedly  applied  more  than  might  be  suspected  from  surviving 
specimens,  since  the  great  bulk  of  aboriginal  hafts  has  been  lost. 
On  occasional  specimens,  the  hafts  were  wrapped  and  burned  in 
''tiger  stripes"  in  much  the  same  fashion  as  some  early  rifle  stocks. 

Around  1800  the  lower  edge  of  the  haft  began  to  be  carved  in  a 
series  of  scallops.  This  innovation  has  been  attributed  to  the  Chip- 
pewa but,  whether  or  not  this  can  be  substantiated,  it  did  become 
popular  among  many  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  western  Plains  tribes, 
and  continued  so  for  at  least  the  next  75  years. 

Other  later  (and  usually  western)  innovations  included  the 
branding  of  the  stem  with  a  hot  file,  the  addition  of  numerous 
brass-headed  tacks,  the  practice  of  wrapping  the  haft  in  brass  or 
copper  wire,  and  the  attachment  of  colorfully  beaded  flaps  (see 
Frontispiece) .  The  provision  of  a  small  carved  protuberance  on  the 
bottom  of  the  haft,  pierced  for  a  buckskin  thong,  is  also  a  19  th 
century  characteristic,  and  is  almost  always  western.  Usually  a 
few  beads,  feathers,  brass  tinklers,   or  perhaps  an  eagle-claw 


THE   PIPE   TOMAHAWK  39 

charm,  were  tied  to  this  thong  (see  No.  201).  This  is  not  found  in 
the  East  except  in  some  very  late  19  th  century  specimens  used 
for  ceremonial  purposes. 

Another  form  of  decoration  included  the  use  of  feathers  and 
cloth.  Feathers  were  used  for  ornamentation  in  the  East,  if  we 
may  judge  by  the  1796  portrait  of  Cornplanter,  and  cloth  wrap- 
pings must  certainly  have  also  been  employed.  Since  both  materi- 
als are  of  a  perishable  nature,  all  specimens  illustrating  this  practice 
are  western  and  date  from  the  19th  century  [see  Frontispiece  and 
Nos.  172  and  176). 

Closely  allied  to  the  subject  of  decoration  was  the  special  use 
of  the  tomahawk  as  an  important  gift  to  cement  a  friendship  or  to 
seal  a  treaty.  Such  "presentation  tomahawks"  are  almost  always 
pipes,  and  normally  they  were  highly  decorated  with  inlays  of  silver, 
or  occasionally  gold,  in  both  haft  and  head  {see  Nos.  134  and  256). 
Coats  of  arms,  names,  dates,  and  other  inscriptions  were  sometimes 
engraved  upon  them  as  well.  One  particular  bit  of  symbolism 
occasionally  encountered  on  such  axes  of  the  i8th  and  early  19  th 
centuries  was  the  "silver  chain  of  friendship"  mentioned  frequently 
in  the  formalized  orations  that  were  an  integral  part  of  the  Indian 
councils  of  that  period.  This  chain  ran  from  a  band  around  the 
haft  near  the  mouthpiece  to  another  band  near  the  head,  or  even 
to  the  head  itself.  In  i860  Benson  J.  Lossing  sketched  a  portrait  of 
Chief  G.  H.  M.  Johnson  of  the  Six  Nations  holding  a  tomahawk 
with  such  a  silver  chain  that  had  been  in  tribal  ownership  for  many 
years.  Another  tomahawk  with  a  silver  chain  of  friendship  belong- 
ing to  Chief  Bowles  of  the  Cherokee  is  now  in  the  Museum  of  the 
American  Indian  {see  No.  133).*^ 

Thus  the  pipe  tomahawk  served  its  various  functions  and  pas- 
sed through  its  many  mutations.  The  Iroquois  chiefs  who  went  to 
the  court  of  Queen  Anne  in  1710  carried  pipe  tomahawks  with 
them,  as  did  the  Crow  chief,  Holds-His-Enemy,  when  he  went  to 
Washington  in  1910  (see  PL  XI).  The  two  centuries  which  inter- 
vened saw  it  spread  to  every  part  of  the  United  States  where 
metal  tomahawks  of  any  sort  were  used  and  quickly  become  the 
most  popular  form  of  all. 

*8  Lossing,  op.  cit.,  421. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  WHITE  MAN  AND  THE  TOMAHAWK 

THE  Indians  were  by  no  means  the  only  peoples  in  America  to 
use  the  tomahawk.  Explorers,  colonists,  soldiers,  and  sailors, 
trappers,  and  fur  traders — all  found  it  a  useful  tool  and 
weapon.  Military  use  of  the  axe  in  America,  of  course,  dates  back 
to  the  Vikings,  who  favored  it  as  a  weapon,  and  even  one  mass 
murder  of  five  women  by  an  axe-wielding  Viking  on  American 
soil  is  recorded  in  the  Norse  sagas.  Spanish  soldiers  of  the  early 
i6th  century  also  carried  battle  axes  through  the  southern 
states.*^ 

When  the  English  and  Dutch  colonists  arrived  in  the  next 
century,  the  tradition  of  the  axe  as  a  military  weapon  had  be- 
come obsolete  in  their  native  lands.  Yet,  in  1641,  colonial  governor 
William  Kieft  directed  that  Negroes  in  New  Amsterdam  were  to 
be  armed  with  "small  axes"  and  half -pikes  to  aid  in  the  war 
against  the  Indians.  Soldiers,  on  the  other  hand,  were  normally 
armed  with  a  gun  and  a  sword.  Experiences  here,  however,  soon 
demonstrated  that  the  hatchet  was  in  many  ways  a  more  useful 
weapon  to  carry  on  expeditions  into  the  wilderness  than  the  sword, 
for  it  could  serve  utilitarian  purposes  as  well.  At  first  it  was  decided 
that  a  certain  number  of  men  in  each  unit  would  exchange  their 
swords  for  hatchets  as,  for  instance,  the  decree  of  the  Council  of 
Connecticut  Colony  in  1675 :  *Tt  is  ordered  that  ten  good  serviceable 
hatchets  be  provided  in  each  county  for  the  use  of  the  army,  and 
ten  soldiers  to  carry  them  instead  of  swords."  Before  the  end  of 
the  century,  militia  laws  almost  universally  specified  that  either 
a  sword  or  a  hatchet  would  be  acceptable  for  military  purposes. 
Since  militiamen  had  to  provide  their  own  weapons,  there  was 
an  understandable  tendency  to  select  the  hatchet,  which  was 
cheaper  than  the  sword,  and  which  could  also  be  used  around  the 
house  when  not  needed  for  military  service. ^^ 

*^  Olson,  op.  cit.,  64.  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  op.  cit.,  passim. 

^^  Extracts  from  the  Papers  of  Director  Kieft,  O'Callaghan  op.  cit.,  I, 
414.  Charles  J.  Hoadly  (ed.),  The  Public  Records  of  the  Colony  of  Connecticut, 
15  vols.  (Hartford,  1850-1890),  II,  385.  Harold  L.  Peterson,  Arms  and 
Armor  in  Colonial  America  (Harrisburg,  Pa.,  1956),  87,  88,  99,  257,  279, 
293-297.  300,  329. 

40 


THE   WHITE    MAN    AND   THE   TOMAHAWK  4I 

The  18  th  century  brought  some  modifications  to  this  trend  in 
mihtary  regulations,  but  did  not  change  it  materially  until  the 
Revolutionary  War.  Militia  laws  began  to  specify  bayonets  as 
well  as  swords  or  tomahawks.  Then  the  swords  began  to  disappear 
from  the  lists,  leaving  only  the  bayonet  and  tomahawk,  which 
were  sometimes  carried  in  a  double  frog  on  a  shoulder  belt.  For  a 
time  in  1776,  Virginia  even  directed  its  cavalry  to  carry  tomahawks. 
During  the  Revolutionary  War  regular  infantry  generally  abandon- 
ed the  hatchet,  but  light  infantry  and  riflemen  who  did  not  have 
bayonets  continued  to  carry  tomahawks  throughout  the  conflict. ^^ 

The  American  colonials  were  not  alone  in  their  use  of  toma- 
hawks in  warfare.  In  1747,  French  troops  and  their  Indian  allies 
who  attacked  Fort  Clinton  in  New  York  were  instructed  to  fire  a 
volley  and  then  charge,  axe  in  hand.  The  British  light  infantry 
adopted  the  tomahawk  in  1759,  carrying  it  in  a  rough,  buttoned 
case,  hung  in  a  frog  on  the  left  side  of  the  belt,  between  the  coat 
and  waistcoat.  This  tomahawk  became  a  standard  part  of  the 
British  light  infantry  equipment  and  was  carried  by  them  through- 
out the  Revolution. ^2 

Following  the  Revolution,  riflemen  in  the  American  Army 
continued  to  carry  tomahawks.  In  1793  the  quantities  of  toma- 
hawks in  various  arsenals  were  listed  :^2 

West  Point  45 

Philadelphia  6 

Carlisle,  Pa.  1007  with  handles 

10 19  without  handles 
Ft.  Washington, 

Western  territory  236 

Compared  with  other  arms  available,  this  was  an  impressive 
inventory.  As  late  as  1819  there  were  still  1074  of  these  tomahawks 
at  Carlisle  Barracks.^* 

When  the  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition  of  1 804-1 806  was  dis- 
patched to  explore  the  newly-acquired  Louisiana  Territory  from 
St.  Louis  to  the  Pacific,  soldiers  carried  tomahawks  believed  to 

51  Peterson,  op.  cit.,  257,  279,  293-297,  300,  333,  334,  335. 

52  O'Callaghan,  op.  cit.,  X,  79,  80.  Peterson,  op.  cit.,  296.  Woodward, 
op.  cit.,  30,  32.  Charles  M.  Lefferts,  Uniforms  of  the  American,  British, 
French  and  German  Armies  in  the  War  of  the  American  Revolution  (N.Y., 
1926),  195,  196.  Cecil  C.  P.  Lawson,  A  History  of  the  Uniforms  of  the  British 
Army,  3  vols.  (London,  1940-1960),  II,  47. 

53  Records  of  the  Of&ce  of  the  Chief  of  Ordnance,  War  Records  Division, 
National  Archives.  Walter  Lowrie  and  Matthew  Clarke,  (eds.),  American 
State  Papers,  Military  Affairs  (Wash.,  D.C.,  1832),  I,  44. 

5*  Ibid. 


42  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

have  been  made  in  the  national  armory  at  Harpers  Ferry.  At  this 
time  there  were  no  regular  riflemen  in  the  American  Army,  such 
troops  having  been  discontinued  with  the  abandonment  of  the 
Legion  system  in  1796.  But  when  riflemen  were  reintroduced  in 
1808,  they  were  again  issued  tomahawks  and  tomahawk  belts, 
which  they  continued  to  use  throughout  the  War  of  1812.  Fol- 
lowing the  war,  special  units  of  riflemen  were  again  discontinued, 
and  with  them  the  tomahawk  disappeared  from  the  army  as  a 
regulation  weapon,  though  the  hatchet  still  continues  to  be  issued 
as  a  tool  to  the  present  day.^^ 

In  the  civilian  world,  hatchets  or  tomahawks  were  long  car- 
ried by  traders,  trappers,  explorers,  and  frontiersmen.  This  con- 
tinued well  into  the  19  th  century,  when  the  trapper,  Osborne 
Russell,  noted  that  his  companions  frequently  carried  hatchets 
fastened  to  the  pommels  of  their  saddles.  Leaders  of  wagon  trains 
following  the  Santa  Fe  trail  in  the  1840's  advised  each  man  in 
the  companies  to  provide  himself  with  a  tomahawk.  Still  later, 
the  professional  buffalo  hunters  clung  to  their  hatchets  just  as 
they  did  to  their  knives  and  rifles.  ^^ 

For  the  most  part,  the  tomahawks  carried  by  both  soldiers  and 
civilians  were  the  typical  simple  hatchet  or  belt  axe  of  the  period. 
Hordes  of  hatchet  heads  from  such  military  sites  as  Fort  Ticon- 
deroga  reveal  clearly  the  type  carried  by  both  militiaman  and 
regular  (see  Nos.  35,  36  and  37).  All  varieties  are  there,  from  the 
polless  European  styles  through  American  implements  with  well- 
developed  polls  and  ears.  There  are  also  documented  specimens  of 
spiked  axes  and  hammer  axes  known  to  have  been  used  by  whites, 
in  such  collections  as  Fort  Ticonderoga,  the  Rhode  Island  Histori- 
cal Society,  and  Washington's  Headquarters  at  Newburgh,  New 
York.  In  the  United  States  National  Museum  there  is  a  hammer 
axe  presented  to  Davy  Crockett  by  the  young  men  of  Philadelphia. 
And  there  are  other  hammer  specimens  bearing  U.  S.  marks,  in- 
dicating official  issue.  There  are  no  extant  specifications  covering 
the  tomahawks  issued  to  United  States  riflemen  at  any  period, 
and  it  may  well  be  that  some  of  these  were  either  spiked  or 
hammer  axes.  In  the  Henry  Ford  Museum  collection  there  is  a 
unique  tomahawk  bearing  a  splendidly  forged  eagle  head  on  its  poll 
and  the  name  '*Jas.  McTear,"  apparently  the  owner,  engraved  on 
it  (see  No.  304). 

55  H.  Charles  McBarron,  Jr.,  "American  Military  Dress  in  the  War  of 
1812,  Part  IV,  Regular  Riflemen,"  Military  Affairs,  V,  No.  2  (Summer 
1941),  138-144.  Woodward,  op.  cit.,  32. 

^®  Osborne  Russell,  op.  cit.,  82.  S.  A.  Clark,  Pioneer  Days  of  Oregon 
(Portland,  1905),  I,  216,  217.  Carl  Russell,  op.  cit.,  235. 


THE   WHITE    MAN    AND    THE    TOMAHAWK  43 

Although  it  has  long  been  thought  that  the  pipe  tomahawks 
were  strictly  for  Indian  use,  this  is  not  entirely  true.  In  the  Museum 
of  the  American  Indian  there  is  a  specimen  bearing  inscriptions 
which  would  indicate  it  was  owned  by  a  colonial  soldier  (see 
No.  301).  In  the  Caldwell  collection  is  a  more  elaborate  pipe  toma- 
hawk of  the  1800-1815  period,  inland  in  gold  and  silver,  and  en- 
graved with  an  eagle  and  military  trophies  {see  No.  30) 

A  final  and  by  no  means  insignificant  number  of  tomahawks 
formed  a  part  of  the  regalia  of  fraternal  and  political  organizations. 
Best  known  of  these  were  the  Sons  of  St.  Tammany  and  the 
Improved  Order  of  Red  Men,  both  of  which  claimed  similar 
origins  although  they  developed  along  entirely  different  lines.  In 
the  pre-Revolutionary  War  days  there  had  been  a  group  called 
the  Sons  of  St.  Tammany,  named  after  a  Delaware  Indian  chief 
who  was  noted  for  his  wisdom  and  benevolence  as  well  as  his  love 
of  liberty.  The  title  of  "Saint"  seems  to  have  been  added  in  jest. 
During  the  War  itself,  this  group  disappeared  along  with  such 
other  kindred  organizations  as  the  Sons  of  Liberty  when  these 
patriotic  groups  united  in  the  struggle  for  liberty. 

With  the  winning  of  independence,  however,  some  Americans 
felt  that  there  was  still  a  need  for  an  organization  to  guard  their 
rights  and  liberties.  On  May  12,  1789,  William  Mooney,  founded 
the  Society  of  St.  Tammany  or  Columbian  Order  for  political 
action  by  middle-class  citizens.  Since  it  was  designed  to  be  entirely 
native  in  character,  it  turned  towards  the  Indian  for  many  of  its 
designations  and  its  regalia.  Officers  received  Indian  titles,  and 
its  main  building  became  known  as  the  tepee;  tomahawks  were 
an  important  ceremonial  item. 

The  Improved  Order  of  Red  Men  also  claims  the  pre-Revolu- 
tionary Sons  of  Saint  Tammany,  Red  Men  and  Sons  of  Liberty 
among  its  ancestors.  Unlike  the  later  Sons  of  St.  Tammany,  the 
Red  Men  remained  a  fraternal,  benevolent  and  patriotic  society 
and  did  not  engage  actively  in  politics.  Of  especial  interest  to 
tomahawk  students,  however,  is  the  fact  that  the  word  Tote  plays 
an  important  role  in  the  Order's  vocabulary.  Thus  at  least  some 
of  those  tomahawks  which  bear  the  words  may  actually  be  fra- 
ternal axes. 

Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  manufacture  in  recent 
times  of  iron  and  brass  reproductions  of  tomahawks.  Usually 
these  are  not  meant  to  defraud  the  purchaser,  but  are  intended 
for  use  by  Indian  lore  enthusiasts,  hobbyists,  and  others  interested 
in  the  subject.  However,  they  are  sometimes  mistaken  for  older 
specimens,  and  often  show  up  in  collections. 


CHAPTER  XII 
NAVAL  BOARDING  AXES 

FOR  centuries  the  sailor  looked  upon  the  hatchet  as  an  essential 
tool  and  weapon  and  used  it  in  much  the  same  ways  as  a 
soldier  did.  On  sailing  ships  the  rigging  frequently  became 
tangled  as  masts  or  arms  were  shattered  in  battle,  and  ropes  had 
to  be  cut  quickly  to  clear  out  debris.  The  hatchet  was  the  obvious 
answer.  Such  naval  battles  also  frequently  ended  as  the  vessels 
came  together  and  the  crew  from  one  boarded  the  other  to  finish 
the  action  in  hand-to-hand  fighting.  Here  the  hatchet,  or  boarding 
axe  as  it  was  usually  called,  was  especially  important.  Nets  or 
other  obstructions  were  frequently  raised  to  hinder  any  such 
boarding  attempt,  and  these  had  to  be  cut  and  cleared  away  with 
the  axe,  which  then  became  a  weapon  in  the  fighting  that  follow- 
ed. Landing  parties  also  normally  carried  such  axes  as  a  tool  or 
defensive  weapon  for  use  in  any  emergency  they  might  encounter. 
Little  is  known  about  the  naval  boarding  axes  of  the  17  th  and 
early  18  th  centuries,  but  by  the  late  18  th  century  established 
patterns  had  developed  which  seem  to  have  been  based  on  long 
tradition.  The  spiked  axe  was  almost  universal,  and  there  were 
iron  straps  either  forged  as  part  of  the  head  or  passing  through 
the  eye,  which  ran  back  along  the  haft  to  protect  it  against  cuts 
and  to  add  strength.  On  British  and  American  boarding  axes 
these  straps  were  normally  on  the  sides ;  on  French  specimens  they 
were  often  along  the  top  and  bottom.  During  the  19  th  century 
British  and  American  axes  usually  had  notches  cut  in  the  back  of 
the  blade  above  the  heel  for  use  in  snaring  lines  or  gripping 
gunwales  or,  in  later  types,  as  nail-pullers.  Aboard  ship,  boarding 
axes  were  kept  in  racks,  issued  as  need  arose,  then  returned  to  the 
racks.  Some  few  were  provided  with  belt  hooks  (notably  by  the 
French),  but  this  does  not  seem  to  have  been  the  practice  either 
in  Great  Britain  or  the  United  States. 

About  the  time  of  the  Civil  War,  the  United  States  abandoned 
the  spiked  axe  in  favor  of  one  with  a  hammer  head  and,  at  the 
same  time,  adopted  a  leather  frog  with  a  button-over  strap,  so 
that  it  could  be  carried  securely  on  the  waist  belt.  During  the  Civil 
War,  boarding  axes  were  issued  to  specified  crew  members,  but 
these  soon  ceased  to  be  a  weapon  as  naval  tactics  changed  with 

44 


NAVAL   BOARDING   AXES  45 

the  introduction  of  steam  ships  and  long  range  cannon.  Boarding 
actions  were  no  longer  practical  and  wooden  masts  and  rope  rig- 
ging also  disappeared.  The  boarding  axe  of  the  late  19  th  century 
was  an  anachronism,  useful  only  for  emergencies,  and,  as  such,  soon 
became  relegated  to  the  tool  box.^^ 

These  statements  concerning  the  evolution  of  the  boarding  axe 
in  the  United  States  Navy  have  necessarily  been  general  and 
somewhat  vague,  for  such  axes  were  not  covered  in  regulations.  In 
the  early  years  of  the  new  nation,  contracts  were  usually  let  for 
the  outfitting  of  a  specific  ship,  but  the  language  in  these  agree- 
ments stated  only  that  the  axes  were  to  be  made  according  to  a 
pattern  which  was  to  be  supplied  to  the  contractor.  This  pattern 
has  long  since  vanished.  Thus,  it  is  known,  for  instance,  that,  in 
1797,  the  Constitution  and  the  Constellation  each  received  loo  boar- 
ding axes,  and  it  is  also  a  matter  of  record  that,  in  1816,  various 
contractors  from  Massachusetts  to  Virginia  were  offering  to  supply 
such  axes  at  prices  ranging  from  62|  cents  to  $7.00  each.  But  it 
is  impossible  to  determine  the  exact  pattern  in  any  given  case. 
Dated  specimens  and  collateral  evidence  supply  the  principal  data, 
and  though  the  outlines  are  clear,  the  details  are  missing.  ^^ 

"  Ordnance  Instructions  for  the  U.S.  Navy,  4th  edition  (Wash.,  D.C., 
1866),  Part  I,  19-25. 

^^  Naval  Records  Division,  National  Archives. 


DIRECTORY  OF  MAKERS  AND  DEALERS 

Albot,  Joseph  Address  unknown.  Employed  by  the  British  to 

make  and  repair  axes  for  friendly  tribes,  1755-1763. 
Allere,  J.  B.  Chicago.  Known  to  have  made  pipe  tomahawks 

ca.  1820-1840. 
Ancram  &  Co.  England.  Supplied  iron  mongery  and  cutlery  to 

the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  in  1800. 
Andrus,  John  Address  unknown,  probably  New  York.  This  name 

appears  on  the  pipe  tomahawk  presented  to  Cornplanter  now 

in  the  New  York  State  Museum,  Albany. 
Bagg,  John  England.  Supplier  of  trade  goods,  1706. 
Bailey,  Thomas  &  Company  England.  Suppliers  to  the  Hudson's 

Bay  Company,  1794-1810. 
Ballard,  Etienne  Blacksmith  at  Detroit,  1778. 
Bell   &  Company  England.    Suppliers  to  the   Hudson's  Bay 

Company,  1792. 
Bordeau,  John  Fort  Laramie,  Dakota  Territory.  Blacksmith  and 

ferryman  at  the  Fort  before  and  after  1847,  Bordeau  made 

hatchets  without  steel  edges  from  old  wagon  tires,  which  he 

traded  to  the  Indians  for  10  beaver  skins.  His  mark  was  JB. 
Bo  wen,  Ryar  Address  unknown.  Blacksmith  hired  to  make  and 

repair  hatchets  for  Indians  friendly  to  the  British  during  the 

French  and  Indian  War. 
Bowen,  William  Address  unknown.  Made  and  repaired  axes  in 

1770. 
Brown,  Elijah  Richmond,  Virginia.  In  1816  he  offered  to  make 

"battle  axes"  for  the  Navy  at  $2.50  each. 
Brown,  J.  M.  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin.  Known  to  have  made  pipe 

tomahawks  ca.  1820-1840. 
Burgon,  John 
Burgon,  John  &  Son  England.  Supplier  of  trade  goods  as  John 

Burgon,  1793-1811;  2iS  John  Burgon  dh  Son,  1812-1821. 
Burnett,  William  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin.  Known  to  have  made 

pipe  axes,  ca.  1820-1830. 
Cargill,  Peter  England.  Supplier  of  trade  goods,  1761-1781. 
Collins   &  Company  Collinsville,  Connecticut.  Established  in 

1826  by  Samuel  W.  Collins,  Daniel  C.  Collins,  and  William 

Wells,  this  firm  has  been  primarily  manufacturers  of  axes, 

ploughs,  and  machetes.  Collins  axes  were  designed  as  tools,  not 

46 


DIRECTORY   OF  MAKERS   AND   DEALERS  47 

specifically  for  the  Indian  trade,  but  a  number  of  them  found 
their  way  into  Indian  hands.  See  No.  45.  Although  the  factory 
was  at  Collinsville,  the  address  "Hartford"  was  stamped  on 
all  Collins  products. 

Cronin,  Peter  Address  unknown.  Made  and  repaired  hatchets  for 
the  Indian  allies  of  the  British  during  the  French  and  Indian 
War. 

Cremar,  Peter  Address  unknown.  Made  and  repaired  hatchets 
for  the  Indian  allies  of  the  British  and  Americans  during  the 
French  and  Indian  War. 

Crowley-Hallett  &  Company  England.  Suppliers  to  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company,  1748-1751. 

Crump,  Thomas  England.  Supplier  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany, 1742-1760. 

Dana,  Daniel  Canton,  Massachusetts.  In  1816  he,  Adam  Kinsley 
and  Charles  S.  Leonard  offered  to  make  boarding  axes  for 
the  Navy  at  $7.00  each. 

Deringer,  Henry  370  N.  Front  Street,  Philadelphia.  Famous 
firearms  maker,  born  1786  in  Easton,  Pa.  He  worked  first  in 
Richmond  and  moved  to  Philadelphia  in  1806,  working  there 
until  his  death  in  1868.  In  1816  he  made  51  brass  pipe  toma- 
hawks for  the  Office  of  Indian  Trade  for  $2.50  each. 

Dimick,  Horace  E.  St.  Louis,  Missouri.  In  1849  Dimick  moved 
to  St.  Louis  from  Lexington,  Kentucky  where  he  had  op- 
erated a  cabinetmaking  and  upholstery  shop.  He  opened 
a  gunsmithing  and  sporting  goods  business  at  38  N.  Main 
Street,  under  the  name  of  H.  E.  Dimick  ds  Co.  In  1861  he 
opened  another  store  at  97  N.  4th  Street.  His  specialty  was 
fine  target  rifles  and  pistols,  but  his  stock  was  varied,  in- 
cluding tomahawks  and  Bowie  knives  as  well  as  all  manner 
of  firearms.  Some  of  these  were  made  in  his  own  shop;  others 
were  purchased  from  different  manufacturers.  He  died  in 
1873.  See  No.  153. 

Duplesis,  Louis  Blacksmith  at  Oviatenon,  Indiana,  1778. 

Durant,  J.  Address  unknown,  probably  American.  The  name  ap- 
pears on  a  hatchet  head  of  the  18  th  century  found  in  New 
Hampshire. 

Dyelle,  Frangois  Blacksmith  among  the  Miami,  1778. 

Gosling,  Richard  Philadelphia.  Made  knives  and  belt  axes, 
1714-1717. 

Goulding  &  Company  New  York  City.  Makers  of  surgical  in- 
struments and  fine  cutlery,  ca.  1850-1860.  See  No.  60. 

Gove,  Carlos  Council  Bluffs,  Iowa;  St.  Joseph,  Missouri,  and 
Denver,    Colorado.    Gove    was   born   in   Went  worth,    New 


48  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

Hampshire  in  1817  and  learned  the  gunsmith  trade  in  Boston. 
After  a  tour  with  the  dragoons,  he  became  gunsmith  at  the 
Pottowattomie  Agency  near  Council  Bluffs  in  1840.  Four 
years  later  he  moved  to  St.  Joseph  and  established  his  own 
business.  In  1854  he  returned  to  Council  Bluffs.  In  1862  he 
opened  a  gunshop  at  the  corner  of  16  th  and  Larimer  Streets 
in  Denver.  By  1871  he  had  moved  to  12  Blake  Street.  In  the 
early  i88o's  the  firm  became  C.  Gove  <^  Son;  the  elder  Gove 
died  in  1900.  See  Nos.  144  and  14^. 

Graham,  Buxton  &  Company  England.  Suppliers  to  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  1818-1820. 

Greaves,  William  &  Sons  Sheaf  Works,  Sheffield,  England. 
The  name  appears  on  a  tomahawk  of  about  1830-1850  with 
a  threaded  diamond-shaped  point  which  may  be  unscrewed. 
Presumably  a  pipe  bowl  could  be  substituted,  but  this  is  now 
missing. 

Hall,  William  A.  Chicago.  Made  pipe  axes,  ca.  1820-1840. 

Hammond  Philadelphia.  The  name  and  city  are  stamped  on  a 
simple  hatchet  with  thickened  poll  and  ears  of  the  late  i8th 
or  early  19  th  century. 

Harrison  &  Bagshaw  England.  Suppliers  to  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  1753. 

Hendricks,  John  Philadelphia.  Made  belt  knives  and  trade 
tomahawks,  1783-1790. 

Hoff,  F.  Lancaster  County,  Pennsylvania,  1 800-1815.  Listed  as  a 
blacksmith,  his  name  appears  on  the  superb  pipe  tomahawk, 
No.  303. 

Hoffman,  Fred  Philadelphia.  In  1806  he  offered  to  make  navy 
boarding  axes  for  $1.00  each. 

Hoglan,  Isaac  Georgetown,  D.  C.  In  1816  he  offered  to  make 
"battle  axes"  for  the  Navy  at  950  each  and  boarding  axes  at 
750  each. 

Holtzappfel  &  Co.  England.  Supplied  axes  to  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  in  1811.  A  pipe  tomahawk  bearing  the  name  and 
the  British  ordnance  mark  of  the  broad  arrow  and  letters  BO 
is  in  the  collections  of  the  Museum  of  the  American  Indian. 
See  No.  126. 

Horstmann  Philadelphia.  The  firm  was  founded  by  W.  H.  Horst- 
mann  in  1818  as  a  lace  and  fringe  factory.  Between  1828  and 
1830  he  opened  military  goods  stores  in  Philadelphia  and 
New  York.  He  took  his  sons  into  the  business,  and  from  1843 
until  1858  the  Philadelphia  directories  list  W.  H.  Horstmann 
d;  Co.  and  W.  H.  Horstmann  dh  Sons  at  the  same  address,  51  N. 
3rd  Street.  From  1845  until  1849  the  New  York  firm  operated 


DIRECTORY   OF   MAKERS    AND   DEALERS  49 

under  the  name  of  Horstmann,  Sons  <^  Drucker.  In  1858  the 
elder  Horstmann  died,  and  in  1859  ^he  Philadelphia  directory- 
lists  Horstmann  Brothers  d;  Co.  in  partnership  with  John  G. 
Franklin  at  723  Chestnut  St.  The  company  was  primarily  a 
sales  concern,  contracting  for  finished  items  from  various 
manufacturers  in  this  country  and  abroad.  The  firm  is  still 
in  business.  See  No.  231. 

Hunt,  James  England.  Supplier  of  trade  goods,  1806. 

IS  Rutland,  Vermont.  These  letters  in  a  heart-shaped  cartouche 
appear  on  a  spiked  axe  of  the  mid-18  th  century  along 
with  the  stamped  word  "Rutland,"  the  date  1775  and  the 
number  3. 

JB  Mark  of  John  Bordeau,  q.  v. 

J.  G.  Unidentified  mark  on  a  spiked  tomahawk  from  central  New 
York  State. 

Johnson,  Reynaldo  Address  unknown.  In  1808  he  delivered  178 
half  axes  at  500  each  and  22  tomahawks  at  400  each  to  the 
Office  of  Indian  Trade. 

Johnson,  Sam  Washington,  D.  C.  In  1816  he  offered  to  make 
"battle  axes"  for  the  Navy  at  62^0  each. 

Jourdain,  Joseph  Wisconsin.  Born  at  Three  Rivers,  Canada,  in 
1780.  He  moved  to  Green  Bay,  Wisconsin  in  1796  and  worked 
at  the  agency  there  until  1834.  I^  that  year  he  was  transferred 
to  Winnebago  Rapids  near  the  Little  Lake  des  Morts,  where 
he  lived  until  his  death  in  1866.  See  No.  162. 

Jukes,  William  &  George  England.  Suppliers  to  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company,  1748. 

Kinsley,  Adam  Bridgewater  and  Canton,  Massachusetts.  In  1816, 
in  partnership  with  Daniel  Dana  and  Charles  S.  Leonard,  he 
offered  to  make  boarding  axes  for  the  Navy  at  $7.00  each. 
Kinsley  was  also  a  gunsmith  who  had  federal  contracts  for 
muskets  in  1798  and  1808. 

Koch,  Rudolph  Fort  Michilimackinac.  A  blacksmith  at  the  post 
before  and  after  1769,  when  he  rendered  a  bill  to  Sir  William 
Johnson  for  making  and  repairing  hatchets  and  axes  of  all 
kinds,  including  pipe  tomahawks. 

Lafoy  or  Lefoi,  Agustin  Detroit.  Assistant  blacksmith  at  Detroit, 
1778,  and  apparently  active  there  as  late  as  1820. 

Leonard,  Charles  S.  Canton,  Massachusetts.  In  partnership  with 
Daniel  Dana  and  Adam  Kinsley,  he  offered  to  make  boarding 
axes  for  the  Navy  at  $7.00  each  in  1816. 

Lewis,  John  Detroit.  Made  pipe  tomahawks,  ca.  1820-1840. 

Lloyd,  Nicodemus  Address  unknown.  In  1805  he  made  12  pipe 
tomahawks  and  61  wood  axes  for  the  Office  of  Indian  Trade. 


50  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

In  1806  he  made  100  "wood  axes,"  150  "common  tomahawks," 

and  50  "pipe  tomahawks." 
Lusignant,  F.  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana.  Made  pipe  tomahawks  ca. 

1820-1840. 
Margnier  Prairie  du  Chien,  Wisconsin.  A  French  smith  mentioned 

as  making  pipe  tomahawks  early  in  the  19  th  century. 
Migneron,  Solomon  Address  unknown.  Made  pipe  tomahawks, 

ca.  1820-1840. 
Montour  Prairie  du  Chien,  Wisconsin.  French  smith  mentioned  as 

making  pipe  tomahawks  early  in  the  19  th  century. 
Morton  &  Company  England.  Suppliers  to  the  Hudson's  Bay 

Company,  18 14. 
Opy,  William  Address  unknown.  Employed  by  the  British  to 

make  and  repair  hatchets  for  their  Indian  allies  during  the 

French  and  Indian  War. 
Parke  The  name  appears  on  a  pipe  tomahawk  of  the  second  half 

of  the  18  th  century,  which  also  bears  the  British  broad  arrow. 

This  may  possibly  be  William  Parkes,  q.  v.  See  No.  113. 
Parkes,  William  England.  Supplier  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany, 1770-1790. 
Parkes  &  Company  England.  Suppliers  to  the  Hudson's  Bay 

Company,  1791-1800. 
Parkes  &  Hearle  England.  Suppliers  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany, 1803. 
Pettibone,  Daniel  Philadelphia.   Gunsmith,  cutler,  and  U.   S. 

inspector  of  arms,  1808-1809.  During  the  War  of  1812  he 

made  belt  axes  as  well  as  pikes  and  knives. 
Printup,  William  Address  unknown.  Made  and  repaired  hatchets 

for  Indians  friendly  to  the  British  during  the  French  and 

Indian  War. 
Provinsalle,  Pierre  Saginaw,  Michigan.  Made  pipe  tomahawks, 

ca.  1820-1840. 
Putnam,  Ernestus  Address  unknown.  In  1818  he  delivered  300 

squaw  axes  to  the  Office  of  Indian  Trade. 
Rose,  J.  &  Son  New  York  City.  In  1806  he  made  36  tomahawks 

for  the  Office  of  Indian  Trade  at  prices  ranging  from  50  to 

90  cents  each. 
Russell,  George  England.  Listed  as  supplier  of  trade  cutlery  and 

hardware,  1800-1816. 
Russell,  Michael  England.  Supplier  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany, 1804. 
Russell,  William  England.  Supplier  of  trade  goods,  1817-1820. 
Russell  &  Company  England.  Listed  as  suppliers  of  trade  goods, 

1792. 


DIRECTORY   OF   MAKERS   AND   DEALERS  5I 

Russell  &  Smith  England.  Suppliers  of  trade  goods,  1789. 

Sanderson  &  Company  England.  Supplier  of  trade  cutlery  and 
hardware,  1744. 

Sanderson  &  Towers  England.  Listed  as  supplier  of  trade  goods, 
1745-1747. 

Seyfert  Philadelphia.  The  name  and  city  appear  on  a  spiked  toma- 
hawk of  the  late  1 8  th  or  early  19  th  century. 

Sharp,  Catherine  England.  Supplier  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany, 1784. 

Sharp,  James  England.  Supplier  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company, 
1760-1790. 

Shaw,  Lemuel  Address  unknown.  In  1811  he  made  12  "Large 
squaw  axes"  at  560  each  for  the  Office  of  Indian  Trade. 

Smith,  William  England.  Supplied  hardware  and  cutlery  for  the 
Indian  trade,  1815. 

Southouse  &  Chapman  England.  Suppliers  to  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  1746-1752. 

Southouse,  Samuel  &  Company  England.  Suppliers  to  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  1738-1756. 

Sprague,  O.  B.  Probably  English,  ca.  1820-1850.  See  No.  ly^. 

St.  Cyr,  Levi  Winnebago,  Nebraska,  Born  about  1875.  A  nickel- 
plated  tomahawk  bearing  his  name  and  date  is  known.  See 
No.  2JJ.  Another  tomahawk  obviously  by  the  same  hand 
but  unmarked  is  illustrated  as  No.  234. 

Stanton  Edward  England.  Supplier  of  Indian  trade  goods, 
1751-1760. 

Stowe,  A.  J.  Address  unknown,  probably  American.  The  name 
appears  on  a  belt  axe  of  the  i8th  century  found  in  Vermont. 

Taylor,  William  England.  Supplier  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany, 1737-1741. 

Taylor  &  Company  England.  Supplier  to  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  1790. 

Thomas,  J.  &  C.  Probably  England.  The  name  appears  on  a  pipe 
tomahawk  made  ca.  1800.  See  No.  128. 

Trott,  J.  England.  Supplier  of  hardware  and  cutlery  for  the  Indian 
trade,  1790. 

Van  Eps,  John  B.  Probably  New  York.  Made  100  axes  for  the 
Treaty  of  Burnet's  Field  in  1770  at  a  cost  of  4  shillings  each. 

Watson,  J.  Address  unknown.  The  name  appears  on  an  iron  pipe 
tomahawk  of  about  1800  in  the  collection  of  the  Ohio  His- 
torical Society. 

Welshhans,  J.  York,  Pennsylvania.  There  were  four  gunsmiths  in 
York,  Pa.  who  signed  their  work  /.  Welshans  or  /.  Welshhans, 
from  the  1770's  through  the  early  19  th  century.  Two  were 


52  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

named  Jacob,  two  Joseph,  and  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
which  is  which  from  the  signature.  For  a  fine  brass  tomahawk 
with  a  steel  edge  bearing  this  name.  See  No.  213. 

W.  H.  &  Co.  A  belt  axe  bearing  this  stamp  was  found  at  Fort 
Ticonderoga. 

Wheat,  Thomas  Washington,  D.  C.  In  1817  he  delivered  to  the 
Office  of  Indian  Trade  66  large  squaw  axes  at  750  each, 
67  middle  squaw  axes  at  62^0  each,  and  62  small  squaw  axes 
at  500  each. 

Whitford,  John  England.  Hardware  and  cutlery  supplier,  1809. 

Wilson,  Samuel 

Wilson,  Samuel  &  Son 

Wilson,  Simon  &  William 

Wilson,  William  England.  Supplied  hardware  and  cutlery  for 
the  Indian  trade,  1737-1745.  Changes  to  Samuel  Wilson 
&  Son,  1746-1760;  Simon  dh  William  Wilson,  1761-1767;  and 
William  Wilson,  1768-1790. 

Wilson,  G.  &  Company  England.  Suppliers  of  hardware  and 
cutlery,  1816. 

Wood,  B.  Probably  English.  A  late  i8th-early  19th  century  pipe 
tomahawk  of  iron  bearing  his  name,  is  in  the  collection  of  the 
Museum  of  the  American  Indian.  See  No.  12^. 

Woodruff,  W.  A.  Probably  Cincinnati.  A  silver  or  silver-plated 
tomahawk  bearing  his  name  and  the  date  1850  is  illustrated 
as  No.  256. 


INDEX  TO  PROVENIENCE 

Attributions,  as  recorded  in  captions,  are  given  below  by  tribe  or, 
if  that  is  not  known,  by  geographical  area  or  state.  Numbers  cor- 
respond to  illustrations. 


Alabama 

15 

Crow 

44,    94,    193, 

Arapaho 

178,  200 

248,  249,  267, 

Arizona 

246 

277 

Arkansas 

8,  9,  II 

ASSINIBOINE 

127,  284 

Delaware 

256 

Bannock 

207 

Fox 

155,  165,  255 

Blackfoot 

182,  192,  198, 

Haida 

7 

217,  222,  224, 

230,  241,  275, 

Illinois 

60 

283,  291 

Indiana 

73,  97,  257 

Iowa 

6,  102 

Caddo 

145,  149,  150, 

Iroquois 

2,  3,  24,  72, 

160,  290 

75,  77>  79,  82, 

California 

16 

113,  116,  121, 

Canada 

12 

129,  132,  143, 

Cayuga 

168 

148,  159,  169, 

Cherokee 

133,  151,  158 

181,  205,  209, 

Cheyenne 

202,  216,  274 

264,  266 

Chickasaw 

131 

Chippewa 

4,  21,  88,  99, 

Kaw 

223 

167,  175,  180, 

KiCKAPOO 

152,  186 

210,  240,  244, 

Kiowa 

272,  287 

245,  251,  254, 

KWAKIUTL 

17,18 

278,  280,  288, 

298 

Mahikan 

162 

Choctaw 

265 

Mandan 

52,  138,  237 

Colorado 

13 

Massachusetts 

301 

Comanche 

49,  189,  190, 

Menomini 

228 

261 

Miami 

115,  134,  208, 

Connecticut 

38,  74 

295 

Cree 

128,  243 

Michigan 

259 

Creek 

146,  242 

Mississippi 

103 

53 


54 


AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 


Nebraska 

204 

Shawnee 

119,  120,  135, 

New  England 

54,  56,  59,  89, 

136,  137,  155, 

90 

185,  226 

New  Hampshire 

34 

Shoshoni 

100,  161,  197 

New  Jersey 

310 

Sioux 

21,  22,  23,  42, 

New  Mexico 

39 

43,  45,  48,  80, 

New  York 

35,  36,  37,  57, 

93,    95,    125, 

62,  63,  64,  65, 

126,  130,  166, 

66,  67,  69,  90, 

174,  176,  179, 

92 

184,  187,  191, 

Nez  Perce 

153,  170,  218, 

194,  195,  196, 

220,  268,  279, 

199,  201,  227, 

299 

236,  247,  250, 
253,  264,  266, 

Oklahoma 

10 

270,  285,  289, 

Ohio 

98,  142,  221, 

292,  294,  297 

260 

Southwest 

108 

Osage 

46,  47,  50,  51, 

219,  232,  269 

Tennessee 

14 

Oto 

5,  188,  229 

TSIMSHIAN 

1 

20 

Ottawa 

154 

Tlingit 

19 

Pennsylvania 

61,    76,    112, 

213 

Ute 

177 

Plains 

172,  282,  293 

Ponca 

104 

Vermont 

64,  300 

POTAWATOMI 

114,  144,  147, 
164 

Virginia 

I,  106,  206 

Wampanoag 

252 

Sauk  and  Fox 

117,  118,  139, 

Washington 

309 

140,  141,  163, 

West  Virginia 

123 

183,  234,  273, 

Winnebago 

156,  233,  239, 

276,  281 

263,  296 

Seminole 

173 

Wyandot 

loi,  157 

Appendix 

THE  BLACKSMITH  SHOP 

by 
Milford  G.  Chandler 

The  pioneer  blacksmith  shop  was  a  cluttered-up  place  where  at 
one  time  the  prevailing  odor  might  be  of  wood  smoke;  at  another 
time,  it  would  be  the  smell  of  the  half-rotted  hoof  and  frog  of  a 
horse  being  prepared  for  shoeing.  Following  the  sound  of  a  hiss-ss-s 
as  a  hot  horseshoe  was  applied,  the  pungent  smell  of  burning  hoof 
would  fill  the  air.  The  ringing  of  the  anvil  could  be  heard  throughout 
the  village  and,  often,  the  loud  whinnying  of  a  stallion.  Except  for 
those  sounds  and  an  occasional  dogfight,  there  generally  was  silence. 

Thick  dust  covered  all  surfaces  not  worn  clean  from  use,  and 
out-of-the-way  places  were  littered  with  odd  pieces  of  iron  and 
wood.  To  the  rear  was  a  heap  of  old  iron,  and  inside,  hanging  from 
pegs,  were  a  few  bars  of  new  iron  of  the  sizes  most  needed.  The  shop 
was  a  cold  place  in  winter,  but  in  the  summer,  with  the  big  door 
open,  it  was  as  airy  and  attractive  as  the  barroom  or  the  general 
store.  Over  the  entrance  might  be  a  sign,  "Blacksmith  Shop."  In 
later  days  this  often  read  "Practical  Horseshoeing"  or  "Scientific 
Horseshoeing,"  especially  if  there  were  rivals  in  the  viUage.* 

The  iron  used  was  called  Swedish,  Norway,  or  wrought  (com- 
monly pronounced  "rot")  iron.  Very  low  in  carbon  content,  it  was 
soft  and  contained  considerable  quantities  of  slag  and  other 
impurities.  These  occurred  in  various  forms,  from  fine  streaks  to 
large  pockets  or  flaws  filled  with  gritty  material.  When  heated  to 
welding  temperature,  this  iron  had  the  merit  of  being  sticky,  with 
the  stringy  fibrous  appearance  of  pulled  taffy. 

Steel  was  expensive.  It  was  made  in  the  shop  by  drawing  iron 
down  to  small  bars,  which  were  then  heated  to  a  high  temperature 
for  a  number  of  hours  in  containers  in  the  presence  of  charred 
leather  or  bone.  During  this  time  the  white-hot  iron  absorbed 

*  In  the  British  Isles  and  eastern  North  America  the  term  forge  was 
used  to  designate  the  business  establishment  where  forgings  were  made.  But 
later,  in  the  West,  the  definition  became  more  limited.  Here,  forge  referred 
to  the  actual  hearth  where  the  work  was  heated  for  forging  or  welding,  and 
the  term  blacksmith  shop  was  a  more  popular  name  for  the  establishment. 

55 


56  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

carbon  from  the  charred  granules.  The  bars  were  then  welded 
together  to  form  the  sizes  wanted.  Naturally,  the  impurities 
already  present  in  the  iron  were  not  eliminated  and,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  carbon,  there  was  an  even  greater  risk  of  imperfect  welds. 
This  was  called  "blister"  steel  because  of  such  imperfections.  The 
collector  should  look  for  these  characteristics  in  the  material  of 
genuine  forged  tomahawks. 

In  those  days,  because  iron  bars  were  expensive  and  the  range 
of  sizes  limited,  a  supply  of  scrap  was  an  adjunct  to  a  forge.  Large 
pieces  were  made  by  welding  smaller  ones  together.  One  forged 
tomahawk,  therefore,  might  contain  iron  from  a  worn-out  wagon 
wheel,  another  from  a  horseshoe,  while  a  third  blade  might  contain 
streaks  of  iron  from  any  number  of  different  sources,  even  from 
guns.  The  steel  might  have  been  retrieved  from  obsolete  swords, 
bayonets,  or  from  discarded  files  and  rasps. 

In  the  smaller  establishments  a  variety  of  work  was  done, 
including  the  repair  of  wooden  wagon  parts  and  guns  as  well  as 
horseshoeing.  It  is  quite  likely  that  a  good  share  of  tomahawks 
were  made  by  gunsmiths  and  blacksmiths  as  a  side  line.  For  ex- 
ample, Jourdain,  the  best-known  tomahawk  maker  in  America, 
had  a  general  blacksmith  business. 

The  actual  hearth  or  forge  was  a  structure  of  brick  with  an 
elevated  platform  on  which  the  fire  was  built.  Partly  over  this  was 
a  hood,  an  extension  of  a  chimney  that  rested  on  the  end  of  the 
forge  at  the  blacksmith's  left.  At  the  right  end  was  a  trough  con- 
taining coal  of  the  type  we  now  call  charcoal.  This  fuel  was  made 
locally  from  wood  that  had  been  heated  until  the  gassy  com- 
ponents were  driven  out. 

Air  was  conveyed  from  a  bellows,  by  pipe,  to  the  base  of  the 
fire  at  what  was  called  the  tuyere,  pronounced  "tweer."  The  bel- 
lows was  operated  with  the  left  hand  by  means  of  a  lever.  It 
usually  had  a  hinged  lower  fiat  member  for  pumping  the  air,  a 
stationary  central  partition,  and  a  hinged  upper  member,  with  an 
accordion-like  strip  of  flexible  leather  to  connect  the  three  together. 
This  formed  two  compartments.  When  the  lower  one  was  drop- 
ped, the  vacuum  created  opened  a  large  fiat  valve  to  take  in  air. 
Then,  when  it  was  raised,  the  air  was  forced  up  through  another 
flapper  valve  in  the  stationary  member  into  the  upper  chamber, 
which  expanded  to  accomodate  the  charge  of  air. 

Some  of  the  basic  tools  and  heavy  equipment  required  for 
tomahawk  manufacture  are  illustrated  in  Figure  9.  In  the  shop, 
tongs  were  hung  on  a  convenient  rack  and,  at  the  coal  trough,  there 
was  a  small  shovel  and  poker.  To  the  left  was  a  tub  of  water  called 
the  slake,  or  "slak,"  tub  and  not  far  away  was  a  hinge- type  vise  of 


APPENDIX  57 

wrought  iron  anchored  to  a  bench.  Because  it  was  steadied  by  a 
projection  going  down  to  the  floor,  this  was  called  a  post  vise.  In 
front  of  the  forge  stood  the  anvil  —  a  heavy  forging  of  iron  with 
a  thick  steel  face  welded  to  its  top  surface.  This  was  mounted  on 
a  section  of  tree  trunk  to  bring  it  to  a  convenient  height.  Handy 
to  the  anvil  were  the  blacksmith's  hammers,  punches,  and  sledge 
as  well  as  hot  and  cold  chisois,  fullers,  and  wooden-handled /^a^^^rs. 
The  use  of  the  flatter  required  the  cooperation  of  an  assistant: 
while  the  blacksmith  held  the  work  with  tongs  and  applied  the 
flatter  or  other  handled  tools,  his  assistant  struck  with  the  sledge. 
The  anvil  supplied  the  backing  or  foundation  for  the  various 
operations. 

The  iron  was  heated  in  the  forge  to  a  bright  red  color,  and  then 
worked  on  the  anvil  until  it  cooled  to  a  dull  red.  It  was  reheated 
for  each  subsequent  operation.  Each  time  the  smith  would  pump 
the  bellows,  sending  a  blast  of  air  up  through  the  fire  to  increase 
the  intensity  of  the  heat.  Chisels  were  used  to  trim  the  work  to 
shape ;  fullers  were  used  to  form  grooves ;  and  flatters,  to  level  the 
surface  marks  made  by  the  hammer.  If  a  hatchet,  hammer,  or 
tomahawk  was  being  made,  a  drift  was  also  used. 

Hammers  and  sledges  were  "faced"  by  welding  a  layer  of  steel 
to  the  iron  work  surface.  For  wood  chisels  and  plane  bits,  a  thin 
layer  of  steel  was  welded  to  one  side  of  the  tool  to  form  the  cutting 
edge.  In  the  manufacture  of  hatchets,  axes,  and  tomahawks,  the 
steel  or  "bit*'  was  usually  welded  into  a  slit  made  at  the  cutting 
end  of  the  blade. 

The  most  important  aspect  in  this  kind  of  forge  welding  was 
the  smith's  judgment  of  temperature,  which  he  determined  by 
watching  closely  the  color  of  the  metals  as  they  were  heated.  The 
iron,  when  brought  to  near  its  melting  point,  became  quite  plastic. 
Particular  caution  was  taken  with  the  steel,  however,  for  if  it 
became  too  hot  it  would  lose  it  properties  of  hardness.  If  the  metals 
were  overheated,  they  "spit,"  or  threw  off  sparks,  as  oxidation 
occurred.  As  the  two  parts  were  heated,  the  areas  to  be  joined  were 
liberally  fluxed.  Borax  was  the  flux  preferred,  but  sand  was  also 
used.  The  flux  served  two  purposes.  First,  acting  as  a  cleaning 
agent,  it  formed  a  near-liquid  paste  that  dissolved  the  surface 
oxides  on  the  metals.  This  paste  flowed  easily  from  between  the 
two  parts  when  they  were  hammered  together.  It  also  formed  a 
protective  film  over  the  metal  surfaces,  thus  preventing  the  oc- 
curence of  further  oxidation  from  the  hot  blast  of  the  fire.  When 
each  of  the  metals  had  simultaneously  reached  its  proper  tempera- 
ture, the  smith  had  to  act  quickly.  The  parts  were  removed  from 
the  fire,  placed  properly  together  on  the  anvil,  and  struck  over  the 


58 


AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 


top  fuller 


anvil 


Figure  9.  Basic  tools  and  shop  equipment 


APPENDIX 


59 


h       ri        hunch 


flatter 


M 


tongs 


bottom  fuller 


used  in  the  manufacture  of  tomahawks. 


o 

o 
o 


CZD 


drift,  with  various  shapes  of  cross  section 


60  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

surfaces  to  be  bonded.  If,  for  any  reason,  the  weld  did  not  produce 
a  good  bond,  it  was  called  a  "cold  shut,"  and  the  entire  process  had 
to  be  repeated. 

If  the  weld  was  successful,  the  projecting  part  of  the  steel  was 
lightly  worked  over  to  reduce  any  brittle  quality  that  might  exist. 
The  forging  was  heated  again,  put  into  the  vise,  and  "hot  filed." 
In  this  step  the  metal  surface  was  gone  over  with  a  very  coarse  file 
or  rasp,  usually  called  a  "bastard"  file,  to  refine  the  form.  If  the 
work  was  a  tomahawk,  it  was  necessary  to  harden  the  cutting  edge. 
To  do  this,  the  steel  was  again  heated  and  then  plunged  into  the 
water  of  the  slake  tub  to  cool.  An  extreme  hardness  —  even  brittle- 
ness  —  resulted  in  the  steel,  but  the  iron  was  not  affected.  Some 
risk  was  involved,  for  there  was  a  chance  that  the  steel  might 
crack  during  the  rapid  chilling.  Now,  to  impart  toughness  to  the 
metal,  it  was  tempered.  The  smith  heated  the  iron  body  of  the 
tomahawk  just  behind  the  cutting  edge.  The  steel,  which  then 
appeared  gray,  was  rubbed  on  the  gritty  floor.  This  abrasive 
action  cleaned  the  surface  of  the  metal  so  the  smith  was  able  to  see 
the  "color."  As  the  heat  traveled  down  the  cutting  edge,  the  metal 
slowly  became  a  straw  color,  then  purplish.  When  it  turned  a  deep 
purple,  the  smith  again  quenched  the  blade  in  the  slake  tub.  By 
this  tempering  process  the  steel  edge  was  made  tough  enough  as 
well  as  hard  enough  to  stand  service  and  retain  its  sharpness. 

The  forging  was  now  ready  for  finish  filing  and  polishing.  In 
well-equipped  shops  these  hard  tasks  were  done  by  power-driven 
grinding  stones  and  polishing  wheels,  but  some  hand  filing  was 
almost  always  required.  If  power  polishing  was  done,  care  was 
taken  to  avoid  excessive  heating  of  the  steel  edge  for  this  would 
cause  a  loss  of  temper  and  the  metal  would  be  softened.  Following 
these  steps,  the  tomahawk  was  ready  for  the  user. 

When  a  tomahawk  rusted,  the  steel  and  iron  usually  took  on 
different  hues.  Sometimes  the  iron  rusted  away  so  much  that,  at 
the  front  and  back  edges,  the  steel  would  stand  at  a  slightly  dif- 
ferent level  than  the  iron.  If  a  tomahawk  is  the  type  used  by 
Indians  of  woodland  regions,  it  should  show  some  sign  of  this  steel 
cutting  edge.  A  reproduction  is  not  so  likely  to  have  this  feature 
and  is  even  less  likely  to  have  a  body  of  "rot"  iron  into  which  a 
steel  bit  had  been  forge  welded. 

CLASSIFICATION 

Because  few  tomahawks  were  marked  with  the  maker's  name, 
and  because  chronological  information  is  so  fragmentary,  as- 
signment of  a  specimen  to  a  particular  period  hinges  largely  on 


APPENDIX  6l 

technical  points.  One  tool  aiding  in  classification  is  the  drift  used  to 
form  the  eye.  The  making  of  a  drift  took  time  and  material  and, 
unless  he  had  a  sufficient  number  of  orders,  it  is  quite  unlikely  that 
a  maker  would  have  had  several  on  hand.  More  probably  he  would 
use  only  one  for  all  the  tomahawks  he  produced  and  merely  change 
the  external  features  to  suit  the  requirements  of  his  customers.  The 
drift  most  commonly  used  for  all  types  of  tomahawks  produced  a 
near-oval  shape  in  the  eye.  However,  some  smiths  used  an  elliptical 
form  while  others  preferred  a  modified  rectangle.  Several  different 
cross  sections  of  drifts  are  shown  in  Figure  9. 

Another  aid  to  classification  is  the  technique  of  manufacture.  A 
maker  would  most  likely  consider  his  particular  method  the  proper 
way  to  do  the  job.  The  process  is  revealed  principally  in  two 
places  —  the  interior  of  the  bowl  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  eye. 
Points  to  be  observed  will  be  brought  out  in  detail  for  each 
technique  described  here. 

TECHNIQUES  OF  MANUFACTURE 

The  early  tomahawk  was  almost  always  made  by  bending  a 
strip  of  iron  at  the  middle  around  a  stake  that  was  usually  sup- 
ported in  the  hole  of  the  anvil.  The  two  lapped  ends  were  then 
welded  together  with  a  bit  of  steel  enclosed  at  the  working  end. 
Most  early  examples  show  signs  that  the  eye  was  "drifted  out/' 
truing  it  to  receive  the  handle.  Some  tomahawks  show  where  the 
smith  neglected  to  true  up  the  eye,  possibly  because  the  maker  may 
not  have  had  a  drift  on  hand. 

By  improvising  on  this  basic  method,  the  makers  could  also 
produce  several  types  of  pipe  tomahawks  [see  Figures  10  and  11). 
One  such  method  was  to  cut  a  dovetail  into  the  top  of  the  eye  of  the 
axe  and  drill  or  punch  a  hole  through  the  eye.  A  short  tube,  often 
a  section  of  gun  barrel,  was  forged  to  a  shank,  leaving  a  bowl  at 
one  end  and  a  flange  at  the  other.  This  flange  was  then  fitted  into 
the  dovetail  and  secured  by  brazing. 

Another  method  was  to  fit  the  flanged  tube  like  a  saddle  to  the 
top  of  the  eye  and  braze  it  into  place.  Still  another  obvious  and 
easy  way  was  to  use  a  brass  pipe  bowl  with  a  threaded  cast  iron 
stud  at  its  base.  This  merely  had  to  be  screwed  into  a  threaded 
hole  drilled  into  the  top  of  the  axe  eye. 

In  some  instances,  instead  of  using  the  brass  bowl  and  iron 
stud  combination,  iron  bowls  were  necked  down  and  threaded.  The 
brass  screwed-in  bowls  did  not  meet  with  much  success  for  they 
were  subject  to  breakage  at  the  stud  and  were  easily  screwed  out 
and  lost.  The  all-iron  bowls  were  found  to  be  somewhat  more 


62 


AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 


A.  bowl,  dovetailed 


B.  bowl  base,  saddle-shaped 


Figure  io.  Improvisations. 


APPENDIX  63 

durable.  These  are  often  hard  for  a  collector  to  detect,  but  traces 
of  the  end  of  the  stud  can  usually  be  seen  inside  the  eye. 


A.  bowl  with  cast-in  stud  B.  bowl  made  of  one  piece  of  iron 

Figure  ii.  Improvisations. 


One  improvisation  which  is  likely  to  pass  unnoticed  is  illus- 
trated in  Figure  12.  In  this  instance,  a  pocket  was  forged  in  the 
top  of  the  eye  and  a  section  of  tube  was  welded  into  the  pocket. 
The  tube  was  then  necked  down  and  finished  to  form  the  pipe  bowl. 
Often  the  weld  is  so  perfect  that  there  is  no  exterior  evidence  of  a 
joint. 

Common  Pipe  Tomahawk 

None  of  the  improvisations  described  above  met  with  any  great 
approval;  it  became  apparent  that  a  rugged,  completely  forged 
pipe  tomahawk  could  be  sold  in  quantities  great  enough  to  war- 
rant its  development.  Most  popular  was  a  design  based  on  the 
traditional  axe  of  the  wrap-around  construction  [see  Figure  13). 
This  had  a  stud  or  shank  riveted  and  welded  into  the  top  of  the 
eye.  Because  it  is  found  in  comparatively  great  numbers,  this  form 
is  called  the  "common"  type.  Variations  on  this  same  technique 
suggest  that  several  contractors  had  been  engaged  in  producing  it 


64 


AMERICAN   INDIAN  TOMAHAWKS 


A.  blade  with  forged  pocket 


B.  tube  ready  for  welding 


C.  tube  forced  into  eye 


D.  section  of  finished  work 


Figure  12.  Improvisations:  bowl  welded  into  depression. 


APPENDIX  65 

to  rather  loose  specifications,  probably  from  samples.  Surviving 
specimens  also  frequently  show  evidence  of  alterations  made  after 
manufacture. 

Lathes  of  a  sort  were  used  to  turn  the  bowls  and  tool  marks  can 
still  be  seen  on  well-preserved  examples.  Some  give  evidence  that 
the  blade  had  been  ground  on  the  flat  surface  to  reduce  the  amount 
of  hand  filing.  The  contours  of  the  shank,  bowl,  and  eye,  made  by 
turning  and  fihng,  are  pleasing  and  quite  uniform  from  one  speci- 
men to  another,  again  an  indication  that  tomahawks  of  this  type 
were  made  to  specification. 

Features  that  distinguish  this  method  of  manufacture  are :  the 
flat  bottom  in  the  bowl  cavity;  the  faint  trace,  inside  the  eye,  of 
the  welded-in  shank;  and  the  seam  where  the  eye  ends  and  the 
blade  starts,  which  can  also  be  seen  inside  the  eye. 

Whatever  the  shape  of  the  drift  used  to  form  the  eye,  it  was 
customary,  when  making  a  pipe  tomahawk,  to  line  the  eye  with 
buckskin  to  seal  and  cushion  its  fit  to  the  handle  and  thus  prevent 
leakage. 

The  "Pierced  Eye''  Method 

This  technique  [see  Figure  15)  was  developed  at  an  early  date. 
For  it,  the  smith  required  a  short  rectangular  bar  of  iron,  the  end 
of  which  was  formed  into  a  pipe  bowl.  This  was  done  by  "upsetting," 
i.e.,  beating  the  end  of  the  iron  to  increase  its  diameter.  This 
section  was  then  somewhat  necked  down  by  using  the  fuller  and 
a  chisel  to  form  a  groove  behind  the  enlarged  portion.  The  result 
was  a  dished-out  pancake  of  metal  standing  on  the  end  of  the  bar. 
This  disc  was  then  drawn  down  over  a  stake  supported  in  the  square 
hole  of  the  anvil.  A  cross-pein  hammer  was  used  in  the  manner 
similar  to  that  employed  by  the  silversmith  in  forming  cup-shaped 
pieces  from  sheets  of  silver.  The  blade  was  roughly  forged  down 
from  the  other  end  of  the  bar  and  slit  to  receive  the  steel  bit. 

The  next  step  was  to  pierce  the  eye.  A  punch  was  driven  nearly 
halfway  into  one  side  of  the  still-thick  portion  of  iron  in  Une  with 
the  thin  edge  of  the  blade.  Then,  from  the  opposite  side,  it  was 
driven  all  the  way  through.  A  drift  was  inserted  into  this  hole  to 
stretch  and  form  the  eye.  Since  the  drift  tapered,  the  hole  also  had 
a  taper,  and  the  handle  was  similarly  designed  where  it  fitted  the 
eye.  This  was  advantageous  for,  by  having  the  handle  larger  at  the 
end  away  from  the  mouthpiece,  the  tomahawk  head  was  prevented 
from  coming  off  accidentally. 

After  the  eye  had  been  shaped,  the  blade  was  forged  out  to  its 
full  width  and  leveled  off  with  the  flatter.  The  shank  between  the 


66 


AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 


A.  a  hole  is  punched  for  the  shank 


B.  the  shank  is  driven  into  the  hole 


0 

UJ 


C.  the  shank  is  welded  into  the  hole 


'^ 


1^ 


U 


Figure  13.  Manufacture  of  the 


APPENDIX 


67 


D.  the  strip  is  bent  and  then  welded 
over  the  steel  insert 


F.  the  eye  is  drifted  to  form  and  the 
tomahawk  is  filed  to  final  shape 


common  pipe  tomahawk. 


68 


AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 


l> 

CTJ 


o 
o 

•s 

o 

Oh 
0) 


% 

a 

o 


o 
o 

+-> 

o 

O 


APPENDIX  69 

bowl  and  eye  was  trued  up,  and  a  small  hole  was  drilled  to  con- 
nect the  bowl  with  the  eye.  The  forging  was  then  ready  for 
filing,  tempering,  and  polishing. 

Characteristics  of  tomahawks  manufactured  in  this  manner  are : 
the  generally  true  form  of  the  eye  and  the  absence  of  any  seam  at 
the  apex  of  the  oval. 

In  one  interesting  variant  of  this  type,  which  I  have  seen,  the 
outside  of  the  eye  opposite  the  blade  had  a  depression,  approximate- 
ly the  size  of  the  bowl,  punched  into  it.  Then  a  section  of  tubular 
material  (perhaps  a  musket  barrel)  was  butt-welded  into  this  de- 
pression and  the  tube  was  necked  down  to  produce  a  shank  and 
bowl.  By  looking  at  it  from  both  the  eye  end  and  the  bowl  end,  and 
by  exploring  it  with  a  wire,  the  pocket  was  found  at  the  point 
where  the  shank  was  joined  to  the  eye. 


Gun- Barrel  Technique 

In  the  early  days,  even  in  well-settled  areas,  iron  was  expensive. 
On  the  frontier  the  costs  of  transportation  increased  the  price  even 
more.  Guns  received  rough  usage  and  scrap  gun  barrels  became  an 
important  source  of  iron.  The  tomahawk  maker  was  quick  to  take 
advantage  of  the  cylindrical  shape  {see  Figure  16) .  A  drill  was  not 
necessary  for  there  was  already  a  hole  for  the  bowl,  and  no  dif- 
ficult welding  was  required.  After  the  tube  was  necked  down  for 
the  shank,  it  was  flattened  all  the  length  from  the  shank  to  its  far 
end.  A  slit  was  then  cut  and  opened  with  a  drift  to  form  the  eye. 
Sometimes  a  steel  bit  was  welded  to  the  cutting  edge. 

The  bowl  made  in  this  manner  was  long,  like  the  catlinite  pipe 
bowls  of  the  Plains  Indians.  The  eye  was  merely  spread  at  the 
middle  and  drifted  to  a  diamond  cross-section  with  rounded 
corners.  The  blade  had  nearly  straight  edges  front  and  back  and, 
since  this  shape  did  not  lend  itself  to  use  in  combat,  it  was  usually 
not  sharpened. 

Such  tomahawks  are  readily  identified  by  the  funnel-like 
opening  which,  with  the  handle  removed,  may  be  seen  under  the 
eye.  Sometimes  traces  of  the  original  rifling  of  the  gun  barrel  can  be 
seen  on  either  side  of  the  eye  or  bowl.* 

*  The  gun-barrel  technique  was  first  described  to  me  by  Colonel  Stobie 
who  was  agent  to  the  Utes  shortly  after  the  Civil  War.  He  went  into  detail 
as  he  had  seen  tomahawks  made  by  the  agency  blacksmith  at  that  time. 
I  was  rather  surprised  to  get  an  identical  description  from  Harry  Burgess, 
who  had  spent  his  boyhood  on  the  Pawnee  reservation  in  Nebraska.  His 
father  was  a  Quaker  appointed  by  President  Grant  to  the  agency. 


70 


AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 


A.  the  bar  of  iron  at  start 
and  after  upsetting 


B,  necking  operation 


C.  the  bowl  is  drawn  to  a  cylindrical  shape 


Figure  15.  The  pierced  eye  technique 


APPENDIX 


71 


D.  the  eye  is  pierced 


E.  the  eye  is  drifted  to  shape 


F.  the  finished  tomahawk 


of  making  a  tomahawk. 


72 


AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 


f^^?\ 


m 


.^..-J^S  /m^  wz-f^ 


A.  the  gun  barrel,  necked  and  flattened 


(:^?\ 


B.  the  eye  slit  and  drifted  to  form, 
and  the  blade  drawn  to  full  width 


f^^ 


C.  section  of  the  eye  and  bowl 


Figure  i6.  Manufacture  of  a  gun-barrel  tomahawk. 


APPENDIX  73 

Wrap-Around  Eye  and  Blade  with  Drilled  Bowl 

This  method  of  manufacture  combines  the  welded  blade 
technique,  such  as  was  used  to  make  the  early  axe,  and  a  drilling 
operation,  which  required  a  machine.  (A  bit  brace  had  been 
adequate  for  the  small  holes  made  in  earlier  examples.)  A  large 
bar  stock  of  iron  was  also  needed,  and  it  is  possible  that  sections 
cut  from  the  axles  of  stage  coaches  were  used  for  this.  Some 
specimens  show  that  a  seamy  wrought  iron  was  used ;  in  others,  the 
metal  is  clear  and  appears  to  be  what  at  that  time  was  called 
"mild"  steel. 

Why  did  the  smith  revert  to  the  older  technique  ?  One  explana- 
tion is  that  it  allowed  a  greater  length  of  contact  between  the  eye 
and  handle,  a  feature  difficult  to  achieve  by  using  the  pierced 
technique.  Generally,  although  it  would  have  been  easy  to  in- 
corporate, the  added  steel  bit  is  absent  and  the  edge  is  quite  blunt. 
Spontoon  blades  were  made  in  this  way,  as  were  the  more  common 
hatchets. 

In  manufacture  {see  Figure  17),  the  heavy  section  of  bar  was 
heated  and  the  fuller  used  to  reduce  the  thickness  in  the  center  on 
each  side  of  what  was  to  become  the  bowl.  Then,  the  two  ends  were 
bent  down  so  that  the  thinned  portion  formed  the  eye.  The  two 
ends  were  welded  together  and  drawn  out  roughly  to  form  the 
blade.  Where  the  center  section  stood  above  the  eye,  the  fuller  and 
a  chisel  were  used  to  neck  the  iron  down  to  form  the  shank.  The 
bowl  was  then  forged  to  a  round  section  to  increase  its  height.  The 
blade  and  eye  were  trued  up  with  the  flatter,  chisel,  and  drift. 

The  bowl  was  very  high  and  the  shank  long,  so  the  depth  of 
driUing  exceeded  any  required  on  pipe  tomahawks  previously 
manufactured.  It  seems  obvious  that  the  maker  must  have  had  at 
least  a  hand-operated  driUing  machine,  such  as  were  available  in 
blacksmith  shops  in  the  settled  parts  of  the  country,  for  he  made 
no  concession  in  technique  to  spare  labor  in  driUing.  A  small  bit 
was  used  to  bore  through  the  entire  length  of  the  bowl  and  shank  to 
the  eye.  A  larger  bit  was  used  to  drill  out  the  bowl.  (The  smiths 
generally  made  their  own  drills  and  tempered  the  working  ends, 
and  lard  oil  was  used  as  a  lubricant.)  The  forging  was  then  ready 
for  finishing  and  ornamentation. 

Characteristics  of  tomahawks  of  such  manufacture  are :  a  high 
bowl,  a  pointed  oval  eye,  usually  a  seam  in  the  area  where  the  weld 
starts,  and  a  definite  angle  at  the  bottom  of  the  bowl  where  the 
drill  stopped. 


74 


AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 


A.  bar  stock  and  first  operation 


B.  bar  drawn  out,  bent,  and  welded 


Figure  17.  Manufacture  of  a  pipe  tomahawk 


APPENDIX 


75 


C.  bowl,  necked  and  drawn  out 


.^ry 


D.  the  finished  forging,  drilled  and  filed 


using  the  "wrap-around  eye  and  blade"  technique 


76  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

REPAIR  AND  REWORKING 

In  wooded  country  it  was  quite  natural  that  the  small  axe  and 
even  the  pipe  tomahawk  were  used  for  chopping.  As  they  wore, 
blades  were  sometimes  taken  to  the  blacksmith  for  "dressing."  To 
do  this,  the  blade  was  thinned  at  the  cutting  edge  to  be  reforged 
and  retempered.  Little  grinding  was  required  to  sharpen  the  edge 
and  the  resulting  acute  angle  cut  wood  more  efficiently. 

The  steel  bit  did  not  extend  very  far  up  into  the  body  of  the 
blade.  Often,  through  wear  and  resharpening,  it  would  be  com- 
pletely worn  away  and  only  the  body  of  soft  iron  remained.  If  a 
new  bit  was  necessary,  a  piece  of  steel  was  simply  welded  to  one 
side  of  the  blade.  This  was  called  a  "lap"  weld.  Later,  when  the 
metal  was  more  plentiful,  a  V-shaped  piece  of  steel  was  welded 
over  the  worn  edge. 

The  shortness  of  some  blades  may  be  accounted  for  by  a  method 
of  repair  that  duplicated  the  manufacturing  process.  In  this,  the 
edge  was  upset,  a  slit  was  cut  in  the  iron,  and  a  steel  bit  was  welded 
into  the  slit. 

In  the  Midwest,  the  spontoon  blade  was  popular,  and  it  would 
appear  from  existing  specimens  that  some  blades  of  the  common 
type  were  reworked  to  this  newer  shape  {see  Figure  14).  This,  of 
course,  would  indicate  that  the  owner  had  given  up  all  thought 
of  using  his  tomahawk  as  a  chopping  tool,  even  though  a  trace 
of  the  steel  from  the  original  cutting  edge  might  still  remain  in 
the  point.  Ordinarily,  a  spontoon  blade  was  used  only  as  a  pipe 
or  symbolic  weapon  rather  than  for  practical  purposes,  and  had 
no  steel  in  it. 

THE  INDIAN  BLACKSMITH 

Indians  took  up  blacksmithing  at  an  early  date,  as  attested  by 
David  Zeisberger,  the  Moravian  missionary  who  worked  among 
many  different  tribes  in  the  years  between  1740  and  1808.  In 
addition  to  forging,  Indians  learned  casting  techniques  and 
decorated  tomahawks,  knife  handles,  pipes,  and  flutes  with 
elaborate  inlays  of  lead  and  pewter.  They  cast  a  number  of 
types  of  tomahawk  heads  of  lead  alloys,  preferring  Babbit  metal 
for  this  purpose.  They  came  in  contact  with  this  alloy  while 
working  in  lumber  mills  and  appreciated  its  hardness  and  lustre 
as  compared  to  bullet  lead.  Before  this  was  available,  they  saved 
the  foil  from  tea  boxes  and,  around  country  printing  shops, 
they  collected  worn-out  printing  type,  which  was  also  prized 
for  its  hardness. 


APPENDIX 


17 


Where  the  Indians  Hved  in  pioneer  settlements,  they  were 
able  to  take  advantage  of  the  heavy  tools  of  their  white  employers 
to  make  forged  tomahawks  and  knives.  Since  there  was  a  steady 
demand  from  their  tribesmen,  some  of  their  work  remains  in 
collections  today.  For  example,  one  tomahawk  I  have  seen, 
which  had  a  pierced  eye  and  a  drilled  bowl  with  a  spontoon 
blade  [see  Figure  i8),  was  made  by  a  Carlisle  graduate.  In  the 
more  remote  villages,  though,  Indian  ironwork  was  largely  con- 
fined to  the  making  of  knives  and  spearheads  from  rasps  and 
files. 


>  \ 


I 


Figure  i8. 

An  Indian's  modification  of  a  ball-peen  hammer 

to  make  a  tomahawk. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  WORKS  CITED 

The  following  list  should  not  be  construed  as  a  complete  bibliography 
of  the  works  consulted  in  the  preparation  of  the  present  study.  It  contains 
only  those  works  with  sufficient  information  to  cause  them  to  be  cited  in  the 
text.  In  addition  to  the  printed  materials  listed,  the  following  manuscript 
sources  were  also  used :  Original  Journals  of  the  Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition, 
1804-1806  in  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  Philadelphia,  and  the 
records  of  the  Army,  Navy,  and  Office  of  Indian  Trade  in  the  National 
Archives,  Washington. 

Anburey,  Thomas 

1 791     Travels  Through  the  Interior  Parts  of  America,  2  vols.,  London. 

Beauchamp,  William  M. 

1902     "Metallic  Implements  of  the  New  York  Indians,"  New  York 

State  Museum  Bulletin  55,  92  pp. 
1946     The  Beaver,  (March  issue  of  magazine  published  by  Hudson's 
Bay  Company),  p.  30. 

Benjamin,  Park,  (ed.). 

1880     Appleton's  Cyclopaedia  of  Applied  Mechanics ,  2  vols.,  New  York: 
D.  Appleton  &  Co. 

Breckenridge,  R.  W. 

1955     "Norse  Halberds,"  American  Anthropologist,  LVII,  #  i,  part  i, 
pp.  129-131. 

Cartier,  Jacques 

1924     The  Voyages  of  Jacques  Cartier,  (H.  B.  Biggar,  editor),  Ottawa. 

Catesby,  Mark 

1 73 1-    The  Natural  History  of  Carolina,  Florida,  and  the  Bahama  Is- 
1743     lands,  2  vols.  London. 

Catlin,  George 

1926     North  American  Indians,  2  vols.,  Edinburgh:  J.  Grant. 

Champlain,  Samuel  de 

1907     The  Voyages  of  Samuel  de  Champlain,  1604-1618,  (W.  L.  Grant, 
editor).  New  York:  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  377  pp. 

Church,  Thomas 

1716    Entertaining  Passages  Relating  to  Philip's  War,  Boston,  360  pp. 

Clark,  S.  A. 

1905     Pioneer  Days  of  Oregon.  Portland,  Oregon. 

Craigie,  Sir  William,  and  James  R.  Hulbert,  (eds.) 

1944     A  Dictionary  of  American  English,  4  vols.,  Chicago:  University 
of  Chicago  Press. 

Creuxiux,  Francisco 

1664    Histories  Canadensis  sen  Novcb  FrancicB.  Paris. 

78 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF  WORKS   CITED  79 

Driver,  Harold  E.,  and  William  C.  Masse y 

1957  "Comparative  Studies  of  North  American  Indians,"  Trans- 
actions of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  XLVII,  part  2, 
pp.  165-456. 

Elmer,  Ebenezer 

1847,    "Journal  Kept  During  an  Expedition  to  Canada  in   1776," 
1848     New  Jersey  Historical  Society,   Proceedings,   II,   pp.   97-146, 
150-194;  and  III,  pp.  21-56,  90-102. 

Ewers,  John  C, 

1955  "The  Horse  in  Blackfoot  Indian  Culture,"  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology,  Bulletin  i^g,  Washington,  D.  C,  374  pp. 

Fowler,  William  S. 

1 95 1  "Tomahawks  of  Central  New  England,"  Bulletin  of  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Archeological  Society,  XII,  No.  3,  pp.  29-37. 

Fowler,  William  S. 

1952  "Trade  Tomahawks,"  Bulletin  of  the  Massachusetts  Archeological 
Society,  XIII,  #  3,  pp.  23-27. 

Garcilaso  de  la  Vega 

1 95 1  The  Florida  of  the  Inca,  (edited  by  John  G.  and  Jeanette  J. 
Varner).  Austin:  University  of  Texas  Press,  655  pp. 

Gerard,  William 

1908  "The  Term  Tomahawk,"  American  Anthropologist,  n.  s.,  X, 
#  2,  pp.  277-280. 

Greeley,  Horace,  and  others 

1872  The  Great  Industries  of  the  United  States.  Chicago:  J.  B.  Burr, 
Hyde  &  Co.,  1304  pp. 

HoADLEY,  Charles  J.,  (ed.) 

1850-   Public  Records  of  the  Colony  of  Connecticut,  15  vols.  Hartford, 
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Hodge,  Frederick  W.,  (ed.) 

1909  "Handbook  of  the  American  Indians  North  of  Mexico,"  Bureau 
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Holmes,  William  H. 

1908  "The  Tomahawk,"  American  Anthropologist,  n.  s.,  X,  #  2, 
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Jeffery,  Thomas 

1757-   Collection  of  Dresses  of  the  Different  Nations.  London. 
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Jeffreys,  C.  W. 

1945     The  Picture  Gallery  of  Canadian  History.  Toronto. 

Keppler,  Joseph 

1929  "The  Peace  Tomahawk  Algonkian  Wampum,"  Indian  Notes, 
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1937  "Journal  of  Rudolph  Friederich  Kurz,"  Bureau  of  American 
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80  AMERICAN   INDIAN  TOMAHAWKS 

LaFarge,  Oliver 

1956  A  Pictorial  History  of  the  American  Indian.  New  York:  Crown 
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Lawson,  Cecil  C.  P. 

1940-  A  History  of  the  Uniforms  of  the  British  Army,  2  vols.  London: 
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Lefferts,  Charles  M. 

1926  Uniforms  of  the  American,  British,  French  and  German  Armies  in 
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LoRANT,  Stefan 

1946     The  New  World.  New  York:  Duel,  Sloan  &  Pearce,  392  pp. 

LossiNG,  Benson  J. 

1869  Pictorial  Field-hook  of  the  War  of  181 2.  New  York:  Harper  & 
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Mason,  Otis  T. 

1 897  '  'The  Tomahawk  of  the  North  American  Indian, ' '  The  A merican 
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McGuiRE,  Joseph  D. 

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McKenney,  Thomas  L.,  and  James  Hall 

1933,    The  Indian  Tribes  of  North  America,   3   vols.   Edinburgh:    J. 
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Mercer,  Henry  C. 

1950  Ancient  Carpenter's  Tools.  Doylestown:  Bucks  County  His- 
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Morgan,  Lewis  H. 

1904  League  of  the  Ho-de-no-sau-nee  or  Iroquois,  (edited  by  Herbert 
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O'Callaghan,  Edmund  B.,  and  others,  (eds.) 

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Scribner's  Sons,  pp.  45-65. 

1 87 1     One  Hundred  Years  of  Progress.  Hartford:  L.  Stebbins. 

1866  Ordnance  Instructions  for  the  United  States  Navy.  4  th  edition, 
Washington,  Government  Printing  Office,  297  pp. 

Peterson,  Harold  L. 

1956  Arms  and  Armor  in  Colonial  America,  i526-iy83.  Harrisburg: 
The  Stackpole  Company,  350  pp. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY   OF  WORKS   CITED  8l 

PoHRT,  Richard  A. 

1957  "Two  Tomahawks  and  an  Iron  Pipe,"  Ohio  Archeologist,  VII, 
#2,  pp.  70,  71. 

Russell,  Carl  P. 

1967  Firearms,  Traps  and  Tools  of  the  Mountain  Men.  New  York: 
Alfred  A.  Knopf,  448  pp. 

Russell,  Osborne 

1955  Journal  of  a  Trapper.  Oregon  Historical  Society,  Portland, 
Oregon,  179  pp. 

Schellbach,  Louis 

1928  "An  Historic  Iroquois  Warclub,"  Indian  Notes,  V,  iff  2,  pp. 
157-166. 

Schoolcraft,  Henry  R. 

1 85 1-   Historical  and  Statistical  Information   Respecting  the  History, 
1857     Condition  and  Prospects  of  the  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  States. 
6  vols.,  Philadelphia:  Lippincott,  Grambo  &  Co. 

Smith,  John 

1907  "A  Map  of  Virginia,"  in  Narratives  of  Early  Virginia, 1606-162 3. 
Lyon  Gardiner  Tyler,  (editor).  New  York:  Charles  Scribner's 
Sons,  pp.  73-203. 

Swanton,  John  R. 

1946  "The  Indians  of  the  Southeastern  United  States,"  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology ,  Bulletin  i3y.  Washington,  D.  C,  943  pp. 

Thiroux,  M. 

1849  Instructions  Theoretique  et  Practique  d'Artillerie.  3rd  edition, 
Librairie  Militaire  de  J.  Dumaine,  Paris,  563  pp. 

Timberlake,  lt.  Henry 

1927  Lieut.  Henry  Timherlake's  Memoirs,  1756-1765,  (Samuel  Cole 
Williams,  editor).  Johnson  City,  Tennessee. 

West,  George  A. 

1934  "Tobacco,  Pipes  and  Smoking  Customs  of  the  American  In- 
dians," Bulletin  of  the  Public  Museum  of  the  City  of  Milwaukee, 
2  vols.  Milwaukee. 

Wheeler,  Robert  F. 

1957  "The  American  Belt  Axe,  1650-1870,"  The  American  Arms 
Collector,  I,  ^  4,  pp.  127-130. 

WiLDSCHUT,  William,  and  John  C.  Ewers 

1959  "Crow  Indian  Beadwork,"  Contributions  from  the  Museum  of  the 
American  Indian,  XVI.  New  York,  55  pp. 

Withers,  Alexander  S. 

1895  Chronicles  of  Border  Warfare.  Cincinnati:  Robert  Clarke  Com- 
pany, 447  pp.  Reprint  of  the  1831  edition. 

Wood,  William 

1898     New  England's  Prospects,  reprint,  n.  p. 

Woodward,  Arthur 

1946  "The  Metal  Tomahawk,  Its  Evolution  and  Distribution  in  North 
America,"  Bulletin  of  the  Fort  Ticonderoga  Museum,  VII,  ^  3, 
pp.  2-42. 


CAPTIONS  TO  PHOTOGRAPHS 


ABORIGINAL  FORMS 

1.  An  example  of  the  17th  century  Virginia  ball-headed  clubs  commonly 
referred  to  by  the  early  colonists  as  tomahawks.  This  specimen  found  its  way 
into  the  collections  of  John  Tradescant  (1608-1662),  a  notable  traveler, 
naturalist,  and  Royal  gardener  who  was  greatly  interested  in  the  newly 
settled  colony  at  Jamestown  and  collected  both  botanical  and  ethnological 
specimens  from  Virginia.  It  displays  the  large  size  and  sharp  drop  to  the  ball 
typical  of  the  early  clubs  of  this  form,  {British  Official  Photograph:  Crown 
copyright  reserved) . 

L:  21"  Ashmolean  Museum,  Oxford 

1685  Cat.B.  133-5 

2.  Ball-headed  club  tomahawk,  probably  early  19th  century.  The  drop  of 
the  haft  is  not  so  sharp  as  that  of  the  previous  specimen,  and  the  ball  is 
somewhat  smaller  in  proportion.  Nevertheless  it  is  a  good  functional  weapon, 
fashioned  from  a  single  piece  of  wood.  Especially  interesting  are  the  incised 
figures  of  two  fighting  Indians  on  the  obverse  side,  one  armed  with  a  bow 
and  arrow,  the  other  wielding  a  ball-headed  club  which  seems  to  have  an 
iron  blade.  Definitely  an  eastern  Indian  tjrpe,  it  has  been  attributed  to  the 
Iroquois. 

L:  24I"  mai/hf:  18/4922 

3.  A  ball-headed  club  tomahawk  of  the  mid-i8th  century  with  an  iron 
blade.  This  important  specimen  was  presented  to  Sir  William  Johnson  after 
1746  and  before  1755.  It  is  inscribed  on  the  underside  of  the  handle  WAT- 
KONOCHROCHQUANYO  [I  present  it  to  thee  freely  out  of  respect] 
WARRAGHIYAGEY  [the  name  given  to  Johnson  when  he  became  a 
Mohawk  war  chief  in  1746],  On  the  top  of  the  handle  is  "og8entaguete  le 
camarade  jeanson"  [the  name  of  an  Onondaga  warrior  who  probably 
presented  the  weapon  to  Johnson,  and  an  identifying  phrase  indicating  he 
was  a  comrade  of  Sir  William].  On  the  obverse  side  are  thirteen  joined 
human  figures,  each  holding  a  gun ;  and  on  the  reverse  is  a  series  of  exploit 
marks  designed  to  record  the  number  of  times  the  owner  engaged  in  battle 
and  whether  he  had  been  wounded.  The  forward  end  of  the  haft  is  carved 
as  an  animal's  head,  and  there  are  some  conventional  incised  decorations. 
L:  23"  William  0.  Sweet  collection 

4.  Ball-headed  club  tomahawk,  late  i8th  century.  The  straight  haft  re- 
sembles the  Johnson  tomahawk  described  above  as  to  the  angle  and 
amount  of  drop  to  the  ball.  The  ball  is  smaller,  and  the  specimen  is  relatively 
light  but  is  still  a  functional  weapon.  The  haft  in  the  area  of  the  drop  is 
shaped  in  profile  to  resemble  an  animal's  head,  holding  the  ball  in  its 
mouth.  It  is  flat  sided  except  for  a  short  section  near  the  butt,  which  has 
been  rounded  to  afford  a  better  grip.  The  butt  itself  is  flat  sided  and 
slightly  larger  than  the  grip  as  a  further  aid  in  retaining  a  good  hold  of  the 
weapon  when  striking.  Just  in  front  of  the  grip  the  haft  is  pierced  for  a 
thong.  Attributed  to  the  Chippewa. 

L:  2if"  mai/hf:  2/4613 

85 


86  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

5.  Ball-headed  club  tomahawk  with  iron  blade,  19th  century.  This  is  a 
highly  sophisticated  example  with  refinements  indicative  of  Plains  Indian 
design.  The  small  decadent  ball,  the  protruberance  on  the  lower  edge  of  the 
haft,  and  the  type  of  decoration  all  point  to  the  western  Indian  and  the 
early  19th  century.  The  decoration  consists  of  brass-headed  tacks  in  pattern 
groupings  on  both  haft  and  ball,  incised  follow  lines,  and  raised  carving. 
Most  significant  is  the  stylized  carving  of  an  otter  on  the  forward  edge  of  the 
drop,  which  undoubtedly  symbolized  the  original  owner's  supernatural 
helper.  The  butt  of  the  haft  is  pierced  for  a  thong,  and  the  grip  area  is 
wTapped  with  a  narrow  band  of  fur.  Collected  from  the  Oto  in  Oklahoma. 
L:  23V'  mai/hf:  1/3555 

6.  Ball-headed  club  tomahawk,  probably  late  19th  century.  In  this 
specimen  the  functional  qualities  of  the  weapon  have  almost  entirely  disap- 
peared. The  balance  is  poor,  and  the  ball  is  decadent,  being  both  small  and 
poorly  shaped.  The  decoration  consists  of  brass-headed  tacks  in  some 
profusion.  A  feather  has  been  attached  to  one  of  the  tacks  just  above  the 
ball.  Collected  in  Iowa,  it  is  also  typically  western. 

L:  27"  mai/hf:  1/3973 

7.  Ball-headed  club  tomahawk,  very  late  19th  century.  A  grotesque  de- 
scendant of  the  early  weapon,  this  one-piece  specimen  was  made  from  a 
burl  and  branch  rather  than  cut  down  from  a  large  block  of  wood  in  the 
traditional  manner.  The  haft,  in  fact,  follows  the  original  contour  of  the 
branch.  There  is  a  slight  enlargement  at  the  butt  and  some  notched  deco- 
ration in  the  grip  area,  but  otherwise  the  limb  has  simply  been  smoothed. 
The  ball,  on  the  other  hand,  has  been  carved  in  tj^ical  Northwest  Coast 
designs.  Collected  from  the  Haida. 

L:  18"  mai/hf:  5/789 

8.  Polished  stone  celt  with  its  original  wooden  haft.  It  was  this  type  of 
hatchet  which  the  colonists  found  the  Indians  using  and  calling  tamahak. 
Like  its  metal  successors,  it  could  be  used  either  as  a  tool  or  weapon.  This 
pre-contact  specimen  was  found  in  Arkansas.  See  also  No.  9. 

H:  6f"W:2f"  L:i9i"  mai/hf:  10/4996 

9.  Celt  tomahawk  with  flaked  stone  head.  Some  had  chipped  stone  heads, 
and  a  few  writers  have  felt  that  these  were  more  apt  to  have  been  weapons 
than  tools.  This  pre-contact  specimen  with  its  original  wooden  haft  is  from 
Benton  County,  Arkansas.  See  also  No.  8. 

H:  4J"  W:  2^"  L:  14^"  mai/hf:  11/7235 

10.  Copper  celts.  There  were  celts  of  native  copper  as  well  as  of  stone  long 
before  the  era  of  the  trade  hatchet.  This  pair  is  from  a  large  cache  of 
such  hatchets  found  together  in  the  Spiro  ]Mound,  Le  Flore  County, 
Oklahoma.  The  wooden  hafts  are  carved  to  resemble  birds'  heads  at  the 
point  where  the  blade  passes  through,  w4th  the  eye  indicated  by  a  circular 
shell  inlay.  Dimensions  given  are  for  the  largest  specimen. 

H:  lof"  W:  if"  L:  18"  mai/hf:  18/9077 

11.  Polished  stone  celt  with  original  haft  of  wood.  This  specimen  closely 
resembles  No.  8,  but  has  a  slightly  longer  haft  and  a  more  sharply  defined 


ABORIGINAL  FORMS  87 

anterior  section  through  which  the  stone  blade  passes.  Found  in  a  cleft  in  a 

rock  bluff  on  the  Buffalo  River  near  Yellville,  Arkansas. 

L:  19  V  mai/hf:  10/4996 

12.  Full  grooved  stone  axe  with  reconstructed  haft  to  show  manner  of 
hafting.  The  hickory  handle  is  wrapped  around  the  head  and  lashed  with 
a  rawhide  thong.  Axes  such  as  this  were  almost  always  tools  although  they 
could  have  been  used  as  weapons  in  an  emergency.  Collected  in  Saskatchewan. 
L:  16"  mai/hf:  22/7240 

13.  Full  grooved  axe  with  original  haft.  This  specimen,  found  in  a  cave 
in  Mesa  Verde,  Colorado,  is  grooved  nearer  the  center  of  the  head.  The  mass 
of  stone  above  the  handle  thus  helps  to  balance  the  weight  of  the  blade  and 
so  affords  a  steadier  stroke.  The  haft  is  composed  of  a  light  withe,  which  is 
wrapped  completely  around  the  head  and  back  along  its  own  length. 

H:  6"L:  17"  mai/hf:  5/8533 

14.  Monolithic  ceremonial  axe.  Like  the  superb  specimen  described  below, 
this  axe  is  fashioned  from  a  single  piece  of  stone.  In  all  major  respects  it  is 
identical  except  for  the  quality  of  workmanship.  Minor  differences  include 
the  shape  of  the  forward  end,  the  amount  of  the  "blade"  projecting  above 
the  "haft,"  and  the  butt  piercing,  which  is  horizontal  instead  of  vertical. 
Found  along  the  Cumberland  River  opposite  Nashville,  it  also  represents 
the  Mississippian  culture  horizon. 

H:  6"  L:  13 J"  mai/hf:   7775 

15.  Indicative  of  the  importance  of  the  early  stone  axe  in  playing  a  cere- 
monial as  well  as  a  utilitarian  role — just  as  did  its  metal  successor — are  the 
superb  axes  carved  from  a  single  block  of  stone,  found  in  various  areas  of 
the  southeastern  United  States.  Useless  as  a  tool  or  weapon,  they  are 
marvelous  examples  of  craftsmanship  in  stone.  Most  of  these  represent 
the  Mississippian  culture  horizon,  and  date  from  between  900-1600  A.D. 
This  specimen,  excavated  at  Moundville,  Alabama,  by  Clarence  B.  Moore 
in  1909,  has  a  small  hole  drilled  in  the  base,  presumably  for  a  thong. 

H:  5f"  W:  2^"  L:  iif"  mai/hf:  17/891 

16.  Monolithic  ceremonial  axe  of  the  type  commonly  termed  a  "slave 
killer."  Outside  the  Mississippian  culture,  monolithic  axes  tended  to  follow 
designs  far  removed  from  the  standard  axes  of  the  period.  This  example  is 
zoomorphic  in  design  with  only  slight  resemblance  to  the  functional  tool. 
It  was  carved  from  black  slate,  probably  about  1500  A.D,  Excavated  on 
Gunther  Island,  Areata  Bay,  California,  it  bears  evidences  of  cremation. 
H:  6i"  L:  15"  mai/hf:  23/1874 

17.  Monolithic  ceremonial  "slave-killer."  This  specimen  of  black  slate 
more  closely  resembles  the  standard  celt  but  is  capped  by  a  carved  eagle's 
head  at  the  forward  end  in  typical  Northwest  Coast  style.  This  head  is,  in 
turn,  decorated  with  tufts  of  hair  set  in  holes  drilled  in  the  stone.  The 
sharply  curved  haft  is  chamfered  in  the  area  of  the  grip  and  bears  an 
incised  design  representing  a  "tinneh,"  the  coppers  used  as  symbols  of 
wealth  in  the  Northwest.  Collected  from  the  Kwakiutl,  Vancouver  Island, 
British  Columbia,  it  dates  to  about  1875. 

H:  8^'  L:  13^"  mai/hf:  5/5062 


m  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

18.  Monolithic  ceremonial  "slave-killer."  Like  the  preceding  specimen, 
this  axe  is  fashioned  from  black  slate  and  was  made  about  1 850-1 875.  The 
workmanship  is  much  finer  and  the  eagle  head  more  stylized.  It  was  never 
tufted.  Collected  at  the  mouth  of  the  Fraser  River,  British  Columbia,  from 
the  Kwakiutl. 

H:  7"  L:  13"  mai/hf:  14/4346 

19.  Ceremonial  stone  "slave-killer,"  early  19th  century.  Closely  related 
to  the  celt,  this  elongated  blade  is  hafted  in  the  same  manner  as  numbers  8 
and  1 1 .  Except  for  the  forward  terminal  and  the  enlarged  butt,  in  fact,  the 
haft  is  quite  similar  to  these  specimens.  The  haft  is  painted  red  and  black. 
The  forward  terminal  is  carved  and  painted  to  resemble  a  human  head  and 
is  even  adorned  with  hair.  Collected  in  Alaska  from  the  Tlingit. 

H:  15"  L:  23^"  mai/hf:  18/8554 

20.  Elkhorn  club  of  the  "slave-killer"  type,  with  stone  blade.  The  antler 
from  which  the  haft  is  fashioned  has  been  smoothed  and  decorated  with 
incised  abstract  zoomorphic  designs.  The  fore  end  is  carved  as  an  animal 
head,  and  the  leaf-shaped  stone  blade  is  cemented  into  a  socket  in  one 
prong  of  the  antler.  Collected  from  the  Tsimshian,  Skeena  River,  British 
Columbia. 

L:  15^'  mai/hf:  15/1346 

21.  Four  gunstock  clubs.  This  form  of  club  has  been  recorded  as  early  as 
the  beginning  of  the  17th  century.  It  remained  in  use  as  a  weapon  among  the 
western  Indians  until  after  1850  and  continued  to  be  made  for  ceremonial 
purposes  for  many  years  thereafter.  The  specimen  at  the  left  bears  a  flaked 
chert  point,  mounted  in  the  early  manner.  Nevertheless  it  is  a  19th  century 
piece,  attributed  to  the  Chippewa.  The  incised  decoration  is  accented  with 
black,  red,  and  green  paint.  (L:  31").  The  second  club,  also  of  19th  century 
style,  is  noteworthy  for  its  pierced  decoration.  Incised  lines  follow  the  edges 
of  the  club  and  the  borders  of  the  piercings  while  brass-headed  tacks  are 
also  used  along  some  of  the  borders.  The  iron  point  is  crudely  fashioned. 
It  is  attributed  to  the  Sioux.  (L:  31^")-  The  third  specimen  boasts  a  spear 
point,  obtained  from  traders,  and  brass-headed  tacks  set  in  a  circle.  It  was 
acquired  from  the  Teton  Sioux  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  at 
which  time  it  must  have  been  relatively  new.  (L:  31  i").  The  right  hand 
specimen  is  less  a  gunstock  club  than  a  variant  of  the  celt  with  a  blade  made 
from  a  knife  instead  of  polished  stone.  The  fore  end  is  cut  on  a  slant  and 
edged  with  three  incised  follow  lines.  A  cluster  of  feathers  is  attached  to  the 
tip.  The  haft  is  fiat  sided  in  the  area  of  the  blade,  then  rounded  to  the  butt, 
which  is  enlarged  to  prevent  the  hand  from  slipping  off.  It  is  late  19th 
century  and  is  attributed  to  the  Sioux.  (L:  32".) 

mai/hf:  21/2103,  18/4911,  16/5172,  1/9641 

22.  Gunstock  club,  mid- 19th  century.  A  long  slender  variant  of  the 
gunstock  club,  it  is  one  step  further  removed  from  the  classical  form  than 
No.  23,  which  retains  more  of  an  angle  at  the  point  of  percussion.  The  three 
blades  of  this  specimen  are  made  of  horn.  The  decoration  consists  of  seven 
unequally  spaced  rings  of  brass-headed  tacks  around  the  haft  plus  feathers 
attached  to  the  fore  end.  Attributed  to  the  Sioux. 

L:  42f"  mai/hf:  7/4305 


SIMPLE  HATCHETS  AND  BELT  AXES  89 

23.  Sitting  Bull's  gunstock  club.  Collected  from  the  famous  Hunkpapa 
Sioux  leader  by  General  Nelson  A.  Miles,  this  long  slender  variant  of  the 
gunstock  club  boasts  three  bowie  knife  blades  of  about  1850,  stamped  on 
their  ricassos  MANHATTAN/  CUTLRY  CCMP/  SHEFFIELD.  The  wood 
is  flat  sided  throughout  and  is  decorated  with  file  branding  in  diagonal 
lines.  The  enlarged  butt  is  pierced  for  the  attachment  of  three  grizzly  bear 
claws  and  a  rawhide  trailer  onto  which  are  sewed  a  number  of  brass  trade 
bells. 

L:  40"  mai/hf:  14/2173 

24.  Peace  wampum  belt  with  trade  tomahawk  in  purple  and  white  quahag 
shell  beads.  It  symbolizes  the  defeat  of  the  Algonquians  by  the  Iroquois  in 
1670  and  was  presented  by  the  victors  to  the  vanquished  at  the  council 
following  the  war.  The  belt  is  15  rows  wide  with  a  hemp  fiber  weft  and 
deer  skin  warp.  At  one  time  it  was  smeared  with  vermillion;  the  depiction 
of  the  simple  iron  hatchet  upon  it  makes  it  an  important  document  for  this 
study.  For  a  detailed  identification  and  documentation  of  this  early  wam- 
pum belt  see  Keppler,  (1929).  It  is  43^"  long  and  varies  from  4^"  to 
41"  wide. 

mai/hf:  9776 


SIMPLE  HATCHETS  AND  BELT  AXES 

25.-34.  Group  of  simple  hatchets  or  belt  axes  of  the  commonest  form  with 
rounded  polls,  showing  some  of  the  variety  in  size  and  shape  that  may  be 
found  in  even  so  basic  a  type.  No.  25  is  the  large  size,  typical  of  those 
traded  almost  exclusively  during  the  17th  century  and  gradually  replaced 
by  lighter  varieties  after  1700,  until  they  were  relegated  to  the  position  of 
the  "squaw  axe".  (H:  7"  W:  3^").  Most  are  made  in  the  usual  fashion,  from 
one  piece  of  strap  iron  with  a  steel  edge  welded  on.  Exceptions  are  No.  32, 
which  is  hammered  out  of  brass  and  may  be  of  Indian  manufacture.  (H:  5" 
W:  2^");  and  No.  34,  from  New  Hampshire,  which  was  made  in  two 
sections  and  welded  down  the  middle.  It  is  entirely  of  iron  without  a  steel 
edge.  (H:7"W:2i"). 

mai/hf: 
22/7331,  22/7393,  22/7405,  22/7395,  22/7394,  22/7331,  22/7334,  17/9764. 
22/7400,  22/7404. 

35.-37.     Anglo-American  belt  axes  of  the  mid- 1 8th  century  found  at  Fort 
Ticonderoga.  They  resemble  the  contemporary  felling  axe  as  it  was  devel- 
oping in  America,  but  are  quite  small  in  size.  These  particular  specimens 
were  probably  used  by  colonial  soldiers.  The  polls  are  flat  and    slightly 
thickened  on  35  and  36  but  not  enough  as  yet  to  counter-balance  the  weight 
of  the  blade  and  prevent  wobbling  in  a  stroke.  The  poll  of  No.  37  is  also  flat 
but  not  thickened.  The  eyes  are  long  thin  teardrops  on  numbers  35  and  36, 
and  are  slightly  shorter  and  thicker  on  37.  In  all  instances,  the  eyes  flare 
to  the  rear  rather  than  to  the  front  as  was  usual  in  most  tomahawks. 
Note  that  ears  have  developed  on  35  and  36.  No.  35  bears  an  illegible 
maker's  mark  on  the  reverse  side. 
No.  35:  H:  4f"  W:  3" 
No.  36:  H:  3|"  W:  2f" 
No.  37:  H:  3f"  W:  i|"  Author's  collection 


go  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

38.  Iron  hatchet  with  double  flaring  blade  and  steel  edge,  middle  i8th 
century.  Excavated  in  an  Indian  grave  near  Greenwich,  Conn.  The  flat  poll 
is  not  thickened  and  shows  signs  of  having  been  used  for  pounding.  The  eye 
is  rectangular.  On  the  obverse  side  is  a  maker's  mark  consisting  of  a  depres- 
sed oval  with  a  raised  border  of  dots  and,  in  the  center,  crossed  saws  or 
scythe  blades  above  a  star.  There  were  originally  three  letters  in  the  angles 
formed  by  the  saws,  but  only  H  and  A  are  now  legible.  Hatchets  of  this 
form  are  comparatively  rare, 

H:  5"  W:  4  J"  Ben  F.  Hubbell  collection 

39.  Hatchet  of  the  so-called  "Spanish  Southwestern  form."  Note  the 
three-piece  construction  with  the  two  side  pieces  of  iron  welded  together 
above  the  eye  to  form  a  heavy  crest  and  the  steel  edge  welded  on.  Collected 
in  Albuquerque,  New  Mexico. 

H:  3I"  W:  if"  William  O.  Sweet  collection 

40.  Fully  developed  hatchet  of  the  American  type,  period  1 750-1 850.  The 
heavy  poll  now  counter-balances  the  blade.  The  ear  is  pronounced,  and  the 
eye  is  an  elongated  teardrop  much  the  same  as  in  a  modern  hatchet. 

H:  4"  W:  2"  William  O.  Sweet  collection 

41.  An  unusual  double-edge  hatchet  of  unknown  provenience;  the  haft  is 
probably  recent.  The  head  is  made  of  four  pieces — two  iron  sides  and  two 
steel  edges,  and  it  apparently  dates  from  the  mid-igth  century.  The  eye 
is  oval. 

H:  3I"  W:  2|"  L:  14"  mai/hf:  22/7243 

42.  Late  belt  axe  of  the  traditional  pattern  with  rounded  poll  and  tear- 
drop eye,  {ca.  1850-1860).  The  head  is  apparently  English  and  bears  a 
maker's  mark  on  the  reverse  side.  This  is  now  illegible  except  for  the  words 
"CAST  STEEL/ WARRANTED."  A  separate  steel  edge  is  welded  on.  The 
head  is  well  made  with  filed  borders  around  the  eye;  moldings  are  below 
it.  The  wooden  haft  is  encased  at  the  butt  end  in  buckskin  and  bears  beaded 
decoration  plus  fringes  and  a  buckskin  wrist  loop.  Collected  about  1875  from 
the  Teton  Sioux. 

H:  6i"  W:  3^"  L:  24^'  mai/hf:  9/6588 

43.  A  traditional  belt  axe  of  the  i8th  or  early  19th  century  with  rounded 
poll  and  round  eye.  It  is  made  of  wrought  iron  with  a  steel  edge.  On  the 
obverse  side  are  two  stamped  marks  consisting  of  a  pair  of  sunbursts  con- 
nected by  an  arc.  The  wooden  haft  is  mid- 19th  century  and  is  encased  at 
the  butt  end  with  buckskin  to  which  is  attached  a  beaded  and  fringed  flap. 
Attributed  to  the  Oglala  Sioux. 

H:  5|"  W:  2|"  L:  19^"  mai/hf:  2/3178 

44.  Late  belt  axe  with  exceptionally  heavy  flat  poll.  The  eye  is  a  pointed 
ellipse,  and  there  is  a  stamped  maker's  mark  that  is  now  illegible.  The 
wooden  haft  is  wrapped  just  behind  the  head  with  strips  of  red  cloth,  and 
there  is  a  wrist  thong  at  the  butt  end.  This  specimen  is  of  Crow  provenience 
and  probably  dates  from  the  second  half  of  the  19th  century. 

H:  5j"  W:  if"  L:  24"  mai/hf:  2/3299 

45.  Late  belt  axe  by  Collins  &  Company.  The  shape  is  generally  traditional, 
but  the  poll  is  flat  and  considerably  thickened.  The  reverse  side  is  stamped 


MISSOURI  WAR  HATCHETS  QI 

"No.  179/COLLINS  &CO.  HARTFORD/CAST- STEEL  WARRANTED." 
The  wooden  haft  is  decorated  with  file  branding  in  wide  bands,  fur,  feathers, 
and  wool  thread.  It  is  Sioux,  and  dates  from  the  latter  part  of  the  19th 
century. 

H:  5I"  W:  3y  L:  28^''  Smithsonian  Institution 

usnm:  1 5402 1 


MISSOURI  WAR  HATCHETS 

46.  Missouri  War  Hatchet  of  the  typical  form,  without  piercings.  The 
head  is  well  made  of  a  single  piece  of  wrought  iron,  and  the  edge  has  been 
beveled,  although  there  is  no  sign  that  it  was  ever  sharpened.  The  eye  is 
round,  and  there  are  deep  file  lines  forming  borders  over  the  poll.  The  blade 
is  decorated  with  stamped  X's,  plus  a  central  design  which  resembles  a 
stick  figure  drawing  composed  of  sunbursts  or  "stars,"  and  file  stamped 
designs.  The  wooden  haft  is  carved  with  a  series  of  line-and-dot  bands.  The 
butt  end  is  encased  in  buckskin  with  a  black-and-white  beaded  band  and 
flap.  Most  of  the  original  fringe  on  the  flap  is  now  missing.  Collected  in  1870 
from  the  Osage. 

H:  8|"  W:  5"  L:  i6f  mai/hf:  7080 

47.  Missouri  War  Hatchet  with  cloth-wrapped  haft.  The  head  is  well 
forged  and  slightly  heavier  than  usual.  The  eye  is  round,  and  over  the  poll 
are  file  lines  formmg  a  border,  plus  a  series  of  punched  dots.  There  is  a 
stamp  which  may  be  a  maker's  mark  somewhat  resembling  a  fleur-de-lys  that 
has  been  applied  five  times.  There  are  five  circular  holes  in  the  blade,  plus  a 
sixth  which  has  been  filled  with  brass.  The  haft  is  encased  in  red  woolen  cloth 
terminating  in  a  flap  with  the  usual  white  selvage.  The  forward  end  of  the 
haft  is  studded  with  brass  tacks,  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  butt  is  carved  in 
serrations.  Collected  from  the  Osage. 

H:  8|"  W:  4I"  L:  24 J''  mai/hf:  2/895 

48.  Missouri  War  Hatchet.  The  head  is  simple  and  plain  except  for  a 
single  piercing  of  a  paisley  or  apostrophe  shape.  The  eye  is  round.  The 
wooden  haft  is  completely  unadorned,  though  there  is  a  piercing  for  a  wrist 
thong  at  the  butt.  Attributed  to  the  Sisseton  Sioux. 

H:  7i  W:  5|  L:  23  mai/hf:  9/7365 

49.  Missouri  War  Hatchet.  This  specimen  is  unusual  because  of  its  narrow 
edge  in  proportion  to  the  height.  Also,  the  edge  has  been  sharply  beveled, 
which  is  most  uncommon.  The  eye  is  round,  and  the  one-piece  construction 
is  typical.  There  are  file  line  decorations  over  the  poll  and  at  the  base  of  the 
blade,  plus  three  rows  of  punched  dots.  The  blade  is  pierced  with  a  "bleeding 
heart"  surrounded  by  a  border  of  punched  dots.  The  small  projection  to  the 
rear  at  the  base  of  the  blade  is  more  highly  developed  than  is  usually 
encountered  in  this  form  of  hatchet.  The  wooden  haft,  which  appears 
somewhat  more  recent  than  the  head,  is  encased  at  the  butt  end  in  buckskin, 
with  a  black-and-white  beaded  band  at  the  forward  end  and  a  flap  at  the 
rear.  The  handle  section  is  wrapped  with  cord.  Both  ends  of  the  leather  are 
fringed,  and  decorated  with  tin-cone  "danglers"  enclosing  tufts  of  deer 
hair.  Collected  from  the  Comanche. 

H:  8"  W:  4"  L:  23"  mai/hf:  11/8057 


92  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

50.  Missouri  War  Hatchet.  The  head  itself  is  simply  forged  in  the  usual 
manner,  but  is  decorated  more  elaborately  than  normal.  There  are  file  mark 
borders  on  the  poll.  The  blade  is  pierced  with  a  "bleeding  heart,"  and  just 
below  the  piercing  on  the  obverse  side  are  a  crescent  and  a  star  inlaid  in 
brass.  Beneath  the  inlaid  star  are  four  punched  stars.  The  haft  is  studded  on 
the  forward  end  with  brass  tacks  and  is  completely  wrapped  in  strouding 
cloth.  This  covering  consists  of  a  broad  strip  of  red  wool  and  a  narrower 
strip  of  blue  wool  which  have  been  sewed  together.  At  the  butt  end  the 
strips  separate  and  form  two  flaps  with  serrated  edges.  The  blue  strip 
terminates  with  selvage  striping  and  the  butt  end  of  the  haft  is  serrated  on 
the  under  side  and  is  pierced  for  a  thong  from  which  is  suspended  a  cluster 
of  small  brass  bells  and  two  trimmed  feathers.  Collected  from  the  Osage. 
H:  8"  W:  4|"  L:  2if'  mai/hf:  2/9173 

51.  Missouri  War  Hatchet  of  exceptionally  large  size.  The  huge  head  is 
decorated  with  deeply  filed  lines  over  the  poll,  plus  moldings  at  the  base 
of  the  blade.  Punched  dots  form  a  cluster  at  the  base  of  the  blade  and  borders 
along  its  front  and  back,  as  well  as  around  the  piercings.  These  piercings 
consist  of  a  heart  in  the  center  and  two  sunbursts,  one  at  the  leading  edge 
and  one  at  the  heel.  The  edge  has  never  been  beveled.  The  plain  wooden 
haft  is  studded  with  brass  tacks.  It  is  pierced  for  a  thong  from  which  a  large 
brass  bell  is  suspended.  An  almost  identical  hatchet  is  in  the  collections  of 
the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History.  Collected  from  the  Osage. 

H:  9|"  W:  6"  L:  21"  mai/hf:  2/5036 


SPONTOON  TOMAHAWKS 

The  great  majority  of  spontoon  tomahawks  were  made  with  pipes.  A 
selection  of  these  are  illustrated  and  described  in  numbers  258-298. 

52.  Spontoon  axe  of  the  type  found  among  the  Mandans  by  Lewis  and 
Clark  in  1805  and  described  by  them  as  the  "older  fassion."  The  huge  blade 
is  forged  from  one  piece  of  wrought  iron,  bent  around  to  form  the  eye  and 
welded  at  the  base  of  the  blade.  The  two  basal  processes  were  cut  from  the 
body  of  the  blade  and  curled  outward.  The  sole  decoration  consists  of  two 
circular  piercings.  Because  of  these  typical  piercings,  the  round  eye,  and 
the  great  length  of  this  form  of  blade  (12  to  15  inches  in  height),  they  are 
often  mistaken  for  door  hinges.  As  weapons  they  must  have  been  extremely 
unwieldy  especially  since  the  haft  was  only  about  14  inches  long,  approxi- 
mately equal  to  the  height  of  the  blade.  The  present  specimen  bears  a 
maker's  mark  in  the  form  of  a  capital  L  stamped  at  the  base  of  the  blade 
just  below  the  weld. 

H:  14V  W:  3^"  Donald  Baird  collection 

53.  Spontoon  axe,  [ca.  1 830-1 850).  It  is  forged  from  a  single  piece  of 
wrought  iron  in  the  usual  fashion  with  a  round  eye.  Decoration  is  provided 
in  the  form  of  numerous  file  marks  and  punched  dots  on  both  the  blade 
and  poll.  The  wooden  haft  is  decorated  with  a  few  brass  tacks  just  behind 
the  head  and  wrapped  with  a  coil  of  fur.  Provenience  unknown. 

H:  1 1  J"  W:  2\"  L:  22"  Smithsonian  Institution 

usnm:  359628 


93 

HALBERD  TOMAHAWKS 

Two  other  halberd  tomahawks,  both  bearing  pipe  bowls,  are  described 
and  illustrated  as  Numbers  107  and  108.  Another  closely  related  specimen  is 
No.  61,  although  it  does  not  have  a  spear  point. 

54.  Halberd  tomahawk,  probably  New  England,  {ca.  1 700-1 750).  In 
many  ways  this  unusual  specimen  seems  almost  to  have  been  made  from 
a  halberd  with  the  head  and  ground  iron  separated  only  by  2  inches  of 
bare  wood.  Both  head  and  ground  iron  are  made  of  wrought  iron  and  forged 
in  several  pieces.  The  blade  and  beak  or  spike  are  of  one  piece.  The  spear 
point  is  round  in  cross-section,  and  both  it  and  the  socket  for  the  haft  may 
at  one  time  have  screwed  into  the  blade-beak  combination.  At  the  present, 
however,  the  piece  is  rusted  badly  so  that  it  is  not  possible  to  deter- 
mine whether  this  is  the  case  or  whether  all  three  pieces  were  welded 
together. 

H:  6|"  W:  2f"  L:  13^"  mai/hf:  22/7241 

55.  Unusual  halberd  tomahawk,  probably  designed  for  throwing,  {ca. 
1 825-1 850).  The  distinctive  features  of  this  specimen  are  the  flat  section  of 
the  haft  and  the  sharply  pointed  butt  filed  to  a  distinct  median  ridge.  It  is 
impossible  to  determine  without  X-rays  whether  it  was  forged  from  two  or 
three  pieces  of  steel,  but  the  haft  and  spear  point  seem  to  be  one  piece  while 
the  blade  and  beak  have  been  welded  on  either  as  a  unit  or  as  separate 
pieces.  The  hole  through  the  butt  end  of  the  haft  is  recent.  Originally  the 
pointed  butt  may  have  been  driven  into  a  short  wooden  handle.  The  fact 
that  the  dark  green  paint  with  which  most  of  the  piece  was  originally 
covered  stops  at  the  filed  area  of  the  butt  seems  to  confirm  this  theory.  No 
exact  analogy  for  this  tomahawk  has  been  found,  though  it  closely  resem- 
bles some  medieval  throwing  axes.  It  is  well  made,  however,  and  seems  to 
have  been  designed  as  a  weapon:  its  combination  of  points  and  edges  makes 
it  especially  adaptable  for  throwing.  Provenience  unknown. 

H:  6|"  W:  4I"  L:  i4|-''  Author's  collection 

56.  Halberd  tomahawk,  probably  New  England,  {ca.  1 700-1 750).  It  is 
forged  from  one  piece  of  steel  averaging  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick 
and  is  unusual  in  that  it  has  a  short  chisel-like  edge  instead  of  a  spear  point. 
The  short  tang  was  designed  to  be  driven  into  a  wooden  haft.  The  beak  has 
been  blunted  somewhat  from  pounding,  and  there  are  still  traces  of  yellow 
and  red  ochre  on  the  blade. 

H:  7"  W:  3 1"  L:  5f"  William  O.  Sweet  collection 

57.  Halberd  (or  halberd  tomahawk)  from  New  York  State,  {ca.  1700- 
1750).  In  some  instances  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  specimens  such 
as  this  were  designed  to  be  fitted  with  a  long  haft  to  serve  as  halberd  or 
whether  they  were  meant  to  have  short  hafts  and  to  be  used  as  tomahawks. 
Probably  some  were  finished  one  way  and  some  another.  The  present  speci- 
men was  found  between  the  walls  of  a  17th  century  house  in  Kingston, 
N.Y.,  along  with  other  pieces  of  Indian  trade  goods,  such  as  packets  of 
jews'  harps  and  folding  knives.  It  is  forged  from  one  piece  of  steel.  The  blade 
and  spear  point  are  sharpened,  but  the  beak  is  simply  a  hook,  rectangular 
in  section.  The  end  of  the  tang  has  been  roughened  with  chisel  cuts  to  help 
hold  it  in  place  after  insertion  in  a  wooden  haft. 

H:  8"  W:  5"  L:  15I"  Author's  collection 


94  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

58.  Halberd  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 700-1 750).  This  a  most  important  specimen, 
for  it  illustrates  how  heads  such  as  number  57  were  hafted  for  use  as  toma- 
hawks. The  head  is  forged  as  one  piece  with  a  long  shank.  Both  blade  and 
spear  point  have  been  sharpened,  but  the  beak  is  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
thick  along  its  edge.  It  does,  however,  taper  toward  its  apex  to  form  a 
relatively  sharp  point.  The  original  haft  is  slotted  to  receive  the  shank, 
which  is  secured  in  place  by  three  transverse  rivets  with  diamond-shaped 
iron  washers.  An  iron  collar  is  wrapped  around  the  fore  end  of  the  haft  and 
brazed.  The  butt  end  is  cut  square,  and  apparently  this  is  the  original  length 
of  the  haft.  At  any  rate,  it  is  far  too  slender  ever  to  have  been  much  longer. 
Provenience  unknown. 

H:  9f"  W:  6^"  L:  ii\'  Author's  collection 

59.  Halberd  tomahawk,  New  England,  early  i8th  century.  Somewhat 
smaller  than  the  preceding  specimen,  this  piece  seems  more  likely  to  have 
been  used  as  a  tomahawk  than  as  a  halberd,  though  either  function  is 
possible.  It  is  forged  from  one  piece  of  steel,  one-quarter  inch  thick.  This 
maximum  thickness  is  maintained  in  the  shank  just  before  and  behind  the 
blade  and  beak,  and  tapers  from  that  in  both  directions.  The  barbed  spear 
point  set  far  up  the  shank  is  a  most  unusual  feature,  and  the  beak  is 
sharpened  to  an  edge  on  the  concave  side.  The  tang  is  also  sharpened  to 
facilitate  driving  into  a  wooden  haft. 

H:  6"  W:  2 J"  L:  \2.\"  Author's  collection 

60.  Halberd  tomahawk  from  Illinois,  {ca.  1750).  It  is  made  entirely  of 
wrought  iron  or  low  grade  steel.  The  haft  is  round  in  section  and  swells 
at  the  normal  position  for  grasping  with  the  hand,  then  tapers  to  a  blunt 
point.  The  beak  has  been  broken  off.  A  generally  similar  tomahawk  marked 
by  R.  Beatty  of  Pennsylvania  is  said  to  have  been  owned  by  Daniel  Boone. 
H:  3f"  W:  2^"  L:  13^"  mai/hf:  22/7270 


SPIKED  TOMAHAWKS 

One  other  spiked  tomahawk  is  illustrated  and  described  as  No.  300  in 
the  section  on  hatchets  used  by  the  military.  Closely  related  types  are  also 
to  be  found  illustrated  in  the  sections  on  celtiform  tomahawks  and  on  naval 
boarding  axes. 

61.  Early  spiked  tomahawk  from  Pennsylvania,  very  similar  to  the  hal- 
berd type.  This  specimen,  which  dates  from  the  first  half  of  the  i8th  centu- 
ry, however,  never  had  a  spear  point.  It  is  forged  in  two  pieces  (head  and 
haft)  of  wrought  iron  or  low  grade  steel.  The  symmetrical,  crescentic  blade 
such  as  found  on  this  and  the  succeeding  three  axes  seems  most  often  to  be 
found  in  New  York  State,  but  it  also  occasionally  appears  in  neighboring 
Pennsylvania  and  New  England.  The  haft  is  flat  sided  with  the  corners 
rounded  and  sharply  pointed  at  the  butt. 

H:  6^"  W:  3f"  L:  lof"  mai/hf:  6/7608 

62.  Early  spiked  tomahawk  with  crescentic  blade  from  New  York,  {ca. 
1 730-1 760).  It  is  forged  in  the  usual  manner  with  two  pieces  of  wrought  iron 
and  a  steel  edge.  The  eye  is  round,  and  the  blade,  eye  section,  and  spike  are 
covered  with  decorations  composed  of  punched  circles  plus  straight  lines 


SPIKED  TOMAHAWKS  95 

and  chevrons  made  up  of  many  individual  short  Unes.  The  spike  is  leaf 

shaped  and  double  edged  but  has  never  been  sharp. 

H:  7^"  W:  3f"  mai/hf:  21/6289 

63.  Early  spiked  tomahawk  with  crescentic  blade  from  Ontario  County, 
New  York,  {ca.  1 730-1 760).  The  eye  is  rectangular,  and  the  entire  head  has 
been  forged  in  the  usual  manner  with  a  steel  edge.  The  diamond-shaped 
spike  has  never  been  sharpened. 

H:  6f"  W:  4 J"  mai/hf:  10/4170 

64.  Early  spiked  tomahawk  with  crescentic  blade  from  Vermont,  {ca. 
1 730-1 760).  This  one  is  of  the  more  common  form,  designed  for  a  wooden 
haft  and  having  a  rectangular  eye.  It  is  forged  in  two  pieces  in  the  typical 
fashion  for  a  spiked  axe  plus  a  steel  edge.  The  spike  is  sharpened  along  its 
back  edge. 

H:  5^"  W:  2|''  mai/hf:  6/6402 

65.  Spiked  tomahawk  from  New  York  State,  {ca.  1750).  It  is  made  of 
wrought  iron  with  a  steel  edge.  The  eye  is  a  pointed  ellipse,  almost  diamond 
shaped.  The  spike  is  rectangular  in  section  and  has  been  decorated  with 
notches  cut  in  the  angles. 

H:  ^l"  W:  2^'  mai/hf:  19/418 

66.  Spiked  tomahawk  from  Genoa,  New  York,  {ca.  1750).  It  is  forged 
from  iron  with  a  steel  edge.  The  spike  has  a  strong  median  ridge  on  both 
sides  so  that  it  is  roughly  diamond  shaped  in  section.  The  eye  is  rectangular. 
H:  7I"  W:  3"  mai/hf:  5/4599 

67.  Spiked  tomahawk  from  New  York  State,  mid- 1 8th  century.  The 
curved  spike  is  especially  long  in  relation  to  the  size  of  the  blade.  It  is 
rectangular  in  section  at  the  base,  and  gradually  becomes  rounder  as  it 
tapers  to  the  point.  The  eye  is  oval,  and  there  is  a  steel  edge. 

H:  7^"  W:  i|"  mai/hf:  21/6303 

68.  Exceptionally  large  spiked  tomahawk,  i8th  century.  The  eye  is 
rectangular,  and  the  spike  is  round  in  section.  There  is  no  information 
concerning  provenience. 

H:  io|:"  W:  3 J"  mai/hf:  22/7337 

69.  Very  large  spiked  tomahawk  from  New  York  State  with  symmetri- 
cally developed  ears  and  a  straight  spike,  possibly  i8th  century.  The  spike 
is  rectangular  in  section  with  rounded  corners  at  the  base,  but  quickly 
becomes  round.  The  eye  is  oval. 

H:  io|"  W:  3I"  mai/hf:  22/7407 

70.  Spiked  tomahawk  of  a  form  closely  related  to  No.  65,  but  half  again 
as  large;  mid- 1 8th  century.  The  spike  is  rectangular  in  section,  but  the 
edges  are  chamfered.  The  eye  is  oval.  Provenience  is  unknown. 

H:  8^"  W:  3^"  mai/hf:  22/7337 

71.  Spiked  tomahawk,  i8th  century.  The  spike  is  unusual  in  that  it  is 
triangular  in  section.  The  eye  is  oval,  and  the  blade  has  been  cut  off  at  the 
back  so  that  the  edge  is  quite  narrow.  Provenience  unknown. 

H:  5^"  W:  if"  mai/hf:  22/7337 


96  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

72.  Late  spiked  tomahawk  collected  among  the  Seneca  in  Oklahoma.  It 
appears  to  be  no  earlier  than  the  second  quarter  of  the  19th  century,  well 
after  the  vogue  for  this  form  of  tomahawk  had  passed.  It  is  made  of  wrought 
iron  with  a  steel  edge.  The  eye  is  a  pointed  ellipse,  and  the  spike  is  rectan- 
gular in  section. 

H:  7I"  W:  3"  mai/hf:  20/7293 

73.  Late  spiked  tomahawk,  probably  1800-18 10,  said  to  have  been  found 
on  the  Tippecanoe  battlefield  in  Indiana.  The  spike  is  rectangular  in  section, 
and  the  eye  is  oval. 

H:  8"  W:  2f"  mai/hf:  22/7391 

74.  Spiked  tomahawk  from  Connecticut  with  symmetrical  ears  and  sym- 
metrically flaring  blade,  {ca.  1 740-1 770).  The  eye  is  a  pointed  ellipse.  The 
spike  is  rectangular  in  section  with  the  corners  chamfered  at  the  base  and 
gradually  tapering  out  for  about  three  quarters  of  its  length. 

H:  7I"  W:  3y  Ben  F.  Huhhell  collection 

75.  Spiked  tomahawk  with  original  haft,  {ca.  1 740-1 770).  This  specimen  is 
believed  to  have  come  from  the  Mohawks  of  central  New  York  State,  It  is 
very  similar  to  one  carried  by  a  colonial  soldier  during  the  French  wars  and 
now  in  the  Rhode  Island  Historical  Society.  The  spike  is  generally  rounded 
in  section,  and  the  eye  is  oval.  The  wooden  haft  still  bears  traces  of  red  paint. 
H:  6|-"  W:  2\"  L:  17"  William,  O.  Sweet  collection 

76.  Spiked  tomahawk  with  exceptionally  long  haft.  The  head  is  beauti- 
fully forged  with  moldings  at  the  base  of  the  spike,  and  engraved  scroll  and 
line  decoration  over  the  eye  and  down  the  blade.  The  spike  has  a  low  median 
ridge  and  slopes  to  an  edge  both  front  and  back,  but  it  has  never  been 
sharp.  The  eye  is  a  pointed  ellipse.  The  haft  has  been  cut  away  at  the 
forward  end  to  allow  it  to  pass  through  the  eye,  and  the  wood  which 
place.  The  wood  has  been  wrapped  and  burned  in  a  tiger  stripe  design  with 
one  broad  and  one  narrow  stripe  spiralling  around  it.  During  the  years  it 
has  broken  once,  approximately  in  the  middle,  and  been  repaired.  This  is 
one  of  few  the  specimens  with  such  a  long  haft,  and  the  presumption  is  that 
it  was  designed  as  a  ceremonial  present  during  the  second  half  of  the  i8th 
century.  It  was  found  in  Pennsylvania. 

H:  7I"  W:  2"  L:  35^"  Author's  collection 

77.  Spiked  tomahawk  with  unusually  forged  head  and  conical  cap  at  the 
butt,  (ca. 1 740-1 760).  Instead  of  being  forged  in  the  usual  manner  from  two 
pieces  of  iron  welded  together  above  and  below  the  eye,  this  specimen  ap- 
pears to  have  been  made  from  a  piece  of  iron  wrapped  around  a  form  for 
the  eye  and  then  welded  back  upon  itself  in  the  manner  of  the  typical  belt 
axe  with  rounded  poll.  The  spike  was  then  forged  separately  and  welded  on. 
There  is  also  a  steel  edge.  At  the  base  of  the  spike  is  a  flat  molding  to  supply 
the  welding  area,  and  this  has  been  balanced  by  additional  moldings  on  the 
poll  and  below  the  eye.  The  spike  is  straight  sided  for  most  of  its  length 
with  chamfered  corners;  then  it  tapers  rapidly  to  a  point  and  becomes 
rounded  in  section.  The  eye  is  round.  The  wooden  haft  is  straight  sided 
until  it  enters  the  butt  cap,  and  there  it  tapers  rapidly  to  a  point.  The  butt 
cap  is  made  of  sheet  iron  and  resembles  the  ground  iron  of  a  polearm  of  the 
period.  Obtained  from  the  Iroquois. 

H:  6"  W:  i|"  L:  14"  mai/hf:  20/1993 


SPIKED  TOMAHAWKS  97 

78.  Spiked  tomahawk  of  the  late  i8th  or  early  19th  century,  of  unknown 
origin.  The  head  is  well  made  and  heavier  than  usual.  The  eye  is  a  pointed 
ellipse,  and  there  are  engraved  line-and-chevron  decorations  above  and 
below  the  eye  and  on  the  spike.  The  spike  itself  has  a  strong  median  ridge, 
but  the  edges  were  never  really  sharp.  The  haft  is  modern. 

H:  8|"  W:  2^'  L:  28"  mai/hf:  22/7237 

79.  Late  spiked  tomahawk  made  by  Goulding  &  Company,  New  York, 
{ca.  1 850-1 860).  The  head  is  made  of  steel  and  finely  finished  with  an  oval 
eye  and  a  spike  with  a  high  median  ridge.  The  haft  is  of  the  curved  pattern 
which  became  popular  about  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  for  both 
hatchets  and  axes.  On  both  the  butt  and  fore  end  are  brass  plates,  each 
attached  by  two  screws.  The  butt  plate  is  stamped  "GOULDING  &  CO  / 
NEW  YORK;"  the  front  plate  "GOULDING  /  NEW  YORK."  This  firm 
made  surgical  instruments  and  other  fine  cutlery  during  this  period.  It  is  at- 
tributed to  the  Iroquois. 

H:  8|"  W:  4^"  L:  17"  mai/hf:  15/6258 

80.  Late  spiked  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 840-1 850).  The  long  straight  spike  is 
generally  rectangular  in  section.  The  eye  is  wedge  shaped,  and  there  is  a 
well-developed  socket  for  the  haft.  The  edge  of  the  blade  is  somewhat 
broken,  but  there  is  no  indication  of  any  steel.  The  haft  is  straight  and 
undecorated.  Attributed  to  the  Sioux. 

H:  10"  W:  2^"  L:  26|-"  mai/hf:  2/5325 

81.  Spiked  tomahawk  with  brass  head,  late  19th  or  early  20th  century. 
The  head  is  crudely  cast.  The  eye  is  round,  the  diameter  increasing  towards 
the  haft  which  is  apparently  held  in  place  by  friction  only.  The  haft  itself 
expands  similarly.  Slightly  more  than  half  way  to  the  butt  it  is  pierced  for  a 
rawhide  thong,  which  is  decorated  with  thread  wrapping,  short  strips  of  fur, 
and  a  long  tuft  of  horsehair.  Tribal  origin  unknown. 

H:  5"  W:  3f"  L:  ly^"  mai/hf:  22/7236 

82.  Late  spiked  tomahawk  of  unusual  construction,  {ca.  1 850-1 860).  Both 
the  blade  and  the  spike  are  formed  from  sheets  of  steel.  These  are  fastened 
together  by  two  straps  of  iron  which  are  bent  outward  in  the  space  between, 
to  form  the  eye,  which  is  in  the  shape  of  a  pointed  ellipse.  The  haft  is  copied 
from  the  recurved  axe  and  hatchet  handles  which  became  popular  after  the 
middle  of  the  century.  Attributed  to  the  New  York  Seneca. 

H:  8J"  W:  3f"  L:  19"  mai/hf:  14/4984 

83.  Spiked  tomahawk  with  symmetrically  flaring  blade,  {ca.  late  i8th  or 
early  19th  century).  Note  the  resemblance  to  No.  69,  except  that  the  spike 
on  this  specimen  is  bent  and  is  slightly  shorter.  The  spike  is  rectangular 
in  section  at  the  base  but  quickly  becomes  rounded.  The  eye  is  oval.  The 
haft  is  a  modem  replacement.  Provenience  unknown. 

H:  8|-"  W:  5"  mai/hf:  22/7264 

84.  Spiked  tomahawk,  late  19th  or  early  20th  century.  The  spike  is  rectan- 
gular in  section.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  haft  is  even  more  recent  than  the  head. 
Provenience  unknown. 

H:  8"  W:  2^"  L:  19I''  mai/hf:  22/7245 

7 


gS  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

85.  Spiked  tomahawk,  {ca.  1890-1910).  The  construction  of  this  specimen 
is  most  unusual.  The  poll  is  wrought  iron,  and  the  blade  is  attached  to  it 
by  three  rivets.  Inside  the  eye  and  around  the  haft  is  a  short  section  of  iron 
pipe.  The  spike  seems  to  be  riveted  on.  The  haft  is  decorated  with  brass 
tacks,  brass  bands,  a  black  leather  band,  and  blue-and-white  beaded  bands. 
Tribal  affiliation  unknown. 

H:  jI"  W:  2^"  L:  16^"  mai/hf:  22/7250 

86.  Spiked  tomahawk,  late  19th  century.  The  piece  is  functional  as  a 
weapon,  which  is  unusual  in  an  implement  which  seems  to  be  so  recent 
from  the  standpoint  of  style  and  workmanship.  The  spike  is  rectangular  in 
section,  and  the  eye  is  a  flat  oval.  Provenience  unknown. 

H:  jI"  W:  2^"  L:  16^"  mai/hf:  22/7310 

87.  Spiked  tomahawk  of  cast  iron,  20th  century.  The  form  of  the  blade 
owes  much  to  the  Missouri  war  hatchet  except  that  the  poll  is  flat  on  top 
and  that  the  sides  of  the  blade  flow  from  the  poll  to  the  edge  in  a  straight 
line  instead  of  curving  in  beneath  the  eye.  There  is  a  pierced  decoration  in 
the  form  of  a  "bleeding  heart."  The  eye  is  round,  and  the  spike  is  round  in 
section.  All  in  all,  this  heavy  and  clumsy  piece  could  serve  only  for  decora- 
tion. The  haft  expands  gradually  from  the  head  to  the  butt.  It  is  pierced 
with  a  small  hole  near  the  butt,  and  two  feathers  are  attached  to  a  rawhide 
thong  tied  through  the  hole.  Tribe  unknown. 

H:  7I"  W:  4I"  L:  i6f"  mai/hf:  22/7247 

88.  Spiked  tomahawk  of  cast  iron,  {ca.  1890-1920).  The  eye  is  round,  and 
the  spike  is  generally  rounded  in  section.  On  the  obverse  side  of  the  blade  is 
a  simple  incised  decoration  which  was  cast  in  the  piece.  It  consists  of  a 
rectangle  with  two  diagonal  lines  connecting  the  corners  and  forming  an  X. 
The  haft  bears  remnants  of  black  paint  and  shows  evidence  of  charring. 
Near  the  head  it  is  pierced  with  a  small  hole  from  which  are  suspended  a 
short  string  of  beads  and  a  tuft  of  horsehair.  Collected  from  the  Chippewa. 
H:  7^'  W:  2|"  L:  16"  mai/hf:  11/8158 


TOMAHAWKS  WITH  HAMMER  POLLS 

Other  tomahawks  with  hammer  polls  which  are  believed  to  have  been 
used  by  settlers  are  illustrated  and  described  as  numbers  302,  305,  307.  One 
tomahawk  which  can  be  converted  from  a  pipe  to  a  hammer  with  a  thread- 
ed insert  is  illustrated  and  described  as  No.  215. 

89.  Unique  tomahawk  with  hammer  poll,  probably  second  half  of  the 
1 8th  century.  It  is  made  entirely  of  wrought  iron,  and  it  is  an  exceptionally 
good  forging.  The  eye  itself  is  round,  but  the  metal  surrounding  it  has  been 
brought  out  to  a  ridge,  giving  this  portion  of  the  axe  a  diamond  shape  when 
viewed  from  the  front.  On  the  poll  is  mounted  a  tall  finial  with  a  thin  vertical 
base  from  which  a  cylindrical  column  rises  to  a  button  at  the  top.  Moldings 
are  forged  and  filed  around  the  column,  and  there  are  straight  file  line 
decorations  on  the  base  which  is  also  pierced  with  a  single  circular  hole.  The 
blade  is  quite  thin,  and  it  also  is  pierced  in  an  intricate  pattern  featuring 
a  four-pointed  star.  In  addition,  there  are  straight  horizontal  file  lines  and 
punched  dots  all  over  the  poll  and  around  the  eye.  Along  the  edge  on  the 


TOMAHAWKS  WITH  HAMMER  POLLS  gg 

reverse  side  of  the  blade  is  a  line  of  small  stamped  sunbursts.  The  haft  is 

modern.  The  axe  is  believed  to  have  been  made  in  New  England. 

H:  6|"  W:  3^"  L:  15''  mai/hf:  15/163 

90.  Tomahawk  with  hammer  poll,  mid-i8th  century,  probably  from  New 
York  or  New  England.  Tomahawks  with  hammers  are  relatively  scarce, 
but  this  is  the  size  and  shape  most  often  encountered  during  the  early  period 
when  they  were  often  an  object  of  real  use.  It  is  forged  in  three  pieces  in  the 
manner  most  commonly  used  for  spiked  tomahawks.  Two  pieces  of  wrought 
iron  were  welded  together  above  and  below  the  eye,  and  a  steel  edge  was 
sandwiched  in.  The  eye  is  a  pointed  ellipse.  The  hammer  is  rectangular  in 
section  with  the  edges  chamfered,  giving  almost  an  octagonal  section. 

William  O.  Sweet  collection 

91.  Superb  tomahawk  with  hammer  poll  of  the  late  i8th  century  or  very 
early  19th  century.  An  identical  specimen  except  for  the  engraving  was 
recovered  in  Ohio  some  years  ago  and  is  now  in  the  Ben  Palmer  collection. 
The  eye  is  round.  The  hammer  is  round  in  section  and  enhanced  with  finely 
forged  moldings.  There  is  also  a  deep  concave  molding  at  the  base  of  the 
blade  to  set  it  off  from  the  eye  area.  On  the  reverse  side  of  the  blade  is  inlaid 
a  silver  crescent  which  once  bore  an  Indian's  name,  now  illegible.  Above  the 
inlay  are  engraved  the  letters  S  C,  separated  by  a  sunburst.  Below,  running 
in  perpendicular  lines,  is  engraved  the  motto  "to  your  /  arms  solder  /  and 
fight."  The  haft  is  curly  maple,  much  darkened.  Provenience  unknown. 

H:  8"  W:  2f"  L:  igf"  William,  Guthman  collection 

92.  Tomahawk  with  a  hammer  poll  of  the  mid-i8th  century  in  better  con- 
dition and  exhibiting  slightly  better  forging  than  No.  90.  The  eye  is  a  thick 
oval.  The  hammer  is  almost  a  true  octagon  in  section,  although  the  wider 
base  is  rectangular  and  the  top  molding  is  almost  circular.  There  are  also 
moldings  at  the  poll  and  just  below  the  eye.  From  Cayuga  County,  New  York. 
H:  6|"  W:  2|"  Ben  F.  Hubbell  collection 

93.  Late  tomahawk  with  hammer  poll,  {ca.  1 850-1 880).  The  eye  is  tear- 
drop. The  hammer  is  ten  sided  for  most  of  its  length,  but  terminates  in  a 
round  band  at  the  top.  There  are  filed  moldings  above  and  below  the  eye. 
The  haft  is  branded  in  stripes  with  a  hot  file  and  is  studded  for  half  its 
length  with  brass  tacks  arranged  in  four  double  bands  and  two  single  ones. 
There  is  a  hole  through  the  center  of  the  haft  at  the  butt,  and  through  this 
are  knotted  two  short  strips  of  fur.  Attributed  to  the  Hunkpapa  Sioux. 

H:  6|"  W:  2"  L:  23^"  mai/hf:  20/1302 

94.  Late  tomahawk  with  hammer  poll,  {ca.  1 860-1 890).  The  eye  is  oval. 
The  hammer  is  generally  octagonal  with  moldings  at  top  and  bottom.  Ad- 
ditional moldings  are  filed  above  and  below  the  eye,  and  two  deep  file  lines 
form  an  X  across  this  area.  The  blade  flares  symmetrically  with  straight 
sides  and  is  quite  thin,  which  is  typical  for  most  forms  of  tomahawk  from 
this  period ;  it  is  forged  completely  of  steel.  The  wide  wooden  haft  has  been 
cut  down  to  enter  the  eye,  which  is  unusual.  It  is  file  branded  and  is  studded 
with  brass  tacks  arranged  in  conventional  designs.  The  butt  is  wrapped  in 
fur  tied  with  rawhide  thongs,  and  there  is  a  blue,  white,  and  black  flap 
backed  w4th  cloth  and  terminating  in  a  beaded  buckskin  fringe.  Collected 
from  the  Crow. 

H:  7V  W:  4J''  L:  2oi"  mai/hf:  13/5320 

7* 


100  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

95.  Late  tomahawk  with  hammer  poll,  [ca.  1 850-1 870).  The  eye  is  wedge- 
shaped,  and  the  hammer,  generally  round  in  section,  flares  outward  toward 
the  top.  The  blade  at  one  time  was  stamped  with  the  number  2  with  several 
words  forming  a  circle  around  it.  These  are  now  illegible,  however.  The  haft 
is  branded  with  a  file  for  slightly  more  than  two-thirds  of  its  length  and  is 
pierced  for  a  thong  at  the  butt.  Attributed  to  the  Sioux. 

H:  6\"  W:  2^"  L:  25"  mai/hf:  7/4629 

96.  Tomahawk  with  hammer  poll  of  the  late  i8th  or  early  19th  century. 
It  is  forged  from  two  pieces  of  iron  plus  a  steel  edge.  The  eye  is  oval.  The 
hammer  is  roughly  octagonal.  Provenience  unknown. 

H:  4f"  W:  3"  mai/hf:  22/7336 

97.  Tomahawk  with  hammer  poll  from  Hamilton  County,  Indiana,  late 
1 8th  century.  It  is  made  of  wrought  iron  with  a  steel  edge.  The  eye  is  oval, 
and  the  hammer  is  generally  round  in  section.  Numerous  small  dots  have 
been  punched  into  the  metal  as  a  decoration. 

H:  4f"  W:  if"  mai/hf:  22/7402 

98.  Tomahawk  with  hammer  poll.  It  is  made  of  wrought  iron  with  a  steel 
edge.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  hammer  is  generally  round  in  section  and  flares 
outward  towards  the  top.  On  the  obverse  is  a  maker's  name,  now  illegible, 
stamped  in  a  rectangular  cartouche,  below  which  are  the  large  letters  US  of 
the  form  commonly  used  during  the  Revolution  and  immediately  thereafter 
to  denote  government  property.  Therefore,  it  may  well  have  been  issued  to 
troops  or  possibly  given  to  friendly  Indians,  though  the  former  is  more 
likely.  Compare  with  No.  302,  another  tomahawk  with  a  hammer  poll 
bearing  what  appear  to  be  identical  markings.  This  specimen  was  recovered 
in  Ohio. 

H:  5j"  W:  2"  mai/hf:  22/7403 

99.  Tomahawk  with  hammer  poll,  [ca.  1 860-1 890).  It  is  made  of  steel  in 
the  typical  fashion  for  western  tomahawks  of  the  period,  with  thin  straight- 
sided  blade  flaring  symmetrically.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  hammer  is  round  in 
section,  decorated  with  moldings  and  diagonal  file  lines.  The  blade  is  pierced 
with  a  heart  design  and  further  decorated  with  a  diagonal  line  of  punched 
dots.  The  haft  is  studded  with  brass  tacks  and  branded  with  a  file.  The  butt 
is  pierced  for  a  thong,  and  to  it  are  attached  two  strips  of  fur.  Attributed  to 
the  Chippewa. 

H:  loj"  W:  4I"  L:  23!"  mai/hf:  15/4742 

100.  Tomahawk  with  hammer  poll  converted  from  a  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca. 
1 860-1 890).  In  this  instance  the  pipe  bowl  was  broken  off,  and  a  short 
hammer  of  lead  was  substituted.  The  rest  of  the  head  is  steel,  decorated  with 
filed  moldings  below  the  eye  and  cross-hatched  file  lines  at  the  base  of  the 
hammer.  The  eye  is  of  teardrop  form,  and  the  blade  is  characteristically 
thin.  The  haft  is  studded  with  brass  tacks  and  branded  with  a  file.  The  butt 
is  encased  in  buckskin  with  a  thong  at  the  rear,  a  beaded  band,  fringe,  and 
a  red  cloth  flap  with  a  beaded  panel  at  the  forward  edge.  At  the  base  of  the 
beaded  panel  is  a  row  of  short  tufts  of  hair  fastened  in  small  brass  cones. 
Collected  from  the  Shoshoni. 

H:  8|"  W:  3I"  L:  23"  mai/hf:  20/9754 


CELTIFORM  TOMAHAWKS  lOI 

101.  Tomahawk  with  hammer  poll,  probably  a  converted  tool,  {ca.  1830- 
1860).  From  all  appearances  this  may  well  have  been  a  shingler's  or  lather's 
hatchet  before  being  acquired  by  the  Wyandot  of  Ohio,  from  whom  it  was 
collected.  It  is  made  of  wrought  iron  with  a  steel  edge.  The  eye  is  a  pointed 
ellipse,  and  the  hammer  is  round  in  section.  The  haft  is  undecorated. 
H:  5i"  W:  2|"  L:  12"  mai/hf:  10/2893 


CELTIFORM  TOMAHAWKS 

102.  Early  celtiform  tomahawk  from  Oklahoma.  The  use  of  iron  for  the 
blade  and  the  apparent  use  of  steel  tools  in  fabricating  the  haft  indicate  that 
it  is  a  post-contact  specimen,  but  the  workmanship  suggests  that  the  entire 
axe,  including  the  head,  is  of  Indian  manufacture.  The  date  is  thus 
difficult  to  establish,  but  it  would  certainly  seem  to  be  in  the  early  i8th 
century.  The  blade  passes  through  the  haft  and  is  secured  by  two  transverse 
rivets.  The  haft  was  originally  painted  a  dull  red  and  dark  brown,  almost 
black.  On  the  forward  end  and  over  the  blade  is  carved  the  figure  of  an  otter, 
probably  the  dream  helper  which  had  appeared  to  the  owner  when  he 
fasted  for  power  as  a  youth,  and  from  whom  he  hoped  to  acquire  the  facility 
for  swift  attack  with  which  the  otter  was  credited.  The  axe  was  found  in  the 
war  bundle  of  an  Iowa  Indian  in  Oklahoma,  and  has  been  published  by 
Harrington,  (1920). 

H:  iif"  W:  i|"  L:  22"  mai/hf:  3/3877 

103.  Early  celtiform  tomahawk  from  Mississippi.  It  is  difficult  to  date  so 
simple  a  specimen  precisely,  but  the  type  of  forging  and  the  use  of  a  shank 
seem  to  point  to  the  i8th  century.  The  head  is  made  in  two  pieces,  a  simple 
triangle  with  the  apex  slightly  curved,  with  a  narrow  strap  bent  around  it 
and  welded  to  it  and  to  itself  to  form  a  shank  for  driving  into  a  wooden  haft. 
This  mode  of  construction  causes  it  to  resemble  in  outline  the  halberd  forms 
also  encountered  during  the  i8th  century.  The  blade  is  well  forged,  and  the 
apex  is  strengthened  with  a  well-defined  median  ridge  which  gives  it  a 
diamond  shape  in  section. 

H:  6^"  W:  3I''  mai/hf:  20/9797 

104.  Celtiform  tomahawk  hafted  in  rawhide  collected  from  a  Ponca  Indian 
in  1840.  The  surface  of  the  head  is  very  rough,  but  the  sides  and  angles  are 
true  and  uniform,  possibly  indicating  white  manufacture.  The  butt  is 
pierced  for  a  thong  which  is  still  in  place. 

H:  6|''  W:  4"  L:  15I''  Woolaroc  Museum:  In  D-452 

105.  Modern  celtiform  tomahawk  suitable  only  for  display  purpose.  The 
head  is  cut  from  thin  sheet  copper.  The  haft  is  split  and  lashed  with  sinew 
and  leather  which  have  been  painted  red  and  blue.  Provenience  unknown. 
H:  8|"  W:  3"  L:  28"  mai/hf:  22/7273 

106.  Early  celtiform  tomahawk  blade.  It  is  forged  in  a  single  piece  with  the 
apex  slightly  curved  in  a  manner  similar  to  No.  103.  Four  circular  piercings 
arranged  to  form  a  rectangle  served  either  as  decoration  or  as  a  means  of 
securing  the  blade  to  the  haft.  Because  of  its  early  form  and  the  fact  that  it 
was  recovered  near  Hampton,  Virginia,  it  would  seem  safe  to  assign  it  a 
date  no  later  than  the  middle  of  the  i8th  century. 

H:  3^"  W:  2^"  mai/hf:  22/7406 


102  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

PIPE  TOMAHAWKS 

Because  pipe  tomahawks  are  so  numerous  and  diversified  they  have 
been  divided  into  the  following  categories:  halberd  form,  conventional 
blades,  spontoon  blades.  Within  these  groups  they  are  further  divided  by 
materials ;  first,  those  of  iron  and  steel,  those  of  brass  with  steel  blades,  those 
completely  of  brass  or  pewter,  and  finally  those  of  stone,  of  which  only  a 
few  specimens  are  included  for  comparison.  It  should  be  noticed  also  that  a 
few  pipe  tomahawks  are  included  in  the  section  dealing  with  the  white  use  of 
tomahawks. 

PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  OF  THE  HALBERD  FORM 

107.  Unusual  halberd  pipe  tomahawk  with  an  iron  haft.  The  head  is  steel, 
probably  with  a  shank  which  is  inserted  into  the  shaft  underneath  the 
forward  silver  band.  The  haft  is  made  of  sheet  iron  wrapped  around  and 
brazed.  At  both  ends  there  are  silver  bands  which  have  been  wrapped  and 
soldered.  A  butt  cap  and  tubular  mouthpiece  of  silver  are  also  soldered  in 
place.  The  pipe  bowl  can  be  unscrewed  and  removed.  Halberd  tomahawks 
are  normally  considered  very  early,  but  the  design  and  workmanship  on 
this  specimen  would  seem  to  indicate  a  date  no  earlier  than  the  first  half  of 
the  19th  century.  Provenience  unknown. 

H:  5i"  W:  3I"  L:  16^"  mai/hf:  22/7230 

108.  Halberd  tomahawk  with  pipe  bowl  in  place  of  the  spike  or  beak; 
1 8th  century.  The  main  body  of  the  head  is  forged  from  iron,  but  there  is  a 
deep  steel  edge  sandwiched  and  welded  into  the  head.  The  spear  point  is 
pierced  with  a  heart  design.  Opposite  the  spear  point  is  a  small  threaded 
hole  for  attaching  the  haft.  The  general  shape  of  the  piece  would  indicate 
the  area  from  Pennsylvania  through  New  England,  though  the  specimen 
was  actually  collected  in  the  Southwest. 

H:  4f"  W:  4-I-"  Smithsonian  Institution 

usnm:  36918 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES 
I.  Iron  or  Steel  Heads 

109.  Superb  example  of  a  mid- 1 8th  century  pipe  tomahawk.  The  head  is 
inlaid  in  both  brass  and  silver,  and  both  the  inlays  and  surrounding  areas 
of  the  head  are  engraved.  Around  the  center  of  the  pipe  bowl  are  a  series  of 
triangular  silver  inlays  engraved  with  floral  patterns.  On  either  side  of  the 
base  of  the  bowl  where  it  is  welded  to  the  poll  are  shield-shaped  brass  inlays, 
again  with  floral  designs  engraved  upon  them.  Silver  8-pointed  stars  with 
engraved  borders  suggesting  vines  are  on  both  sides  of  the  eye  area.  The 
blade  bears  brass  triangles  and  a  series  of  inlaid  silver  flowers  connected 
by  engraved  stems  and  leaves  cut  into  the  iron  of  the  head.  The  haft  is  curly 
maple  with  a  shaped  underside  and  mouthpiece.  Provenience  unknown. 
H:  81"  W:  3"  L:  22"  William  O.  Sweet  collection 

110.  Pipe  tomahawk  of  a  slightly  higher  quality  than  No.  iii,  and  dating 
from  the  same  era.  The  moldings  on  the  head  are  more  boldly  executed, 
and  the  inlays  in  the  haft  are  engraved  with  scratchwork  designs.  These 
inlays  consist  of  a  fore-end  cap,  a  band  just  behind  the  head  with  serrated 
edges,  and  a  mouthpiece  also  with  serrated  edges,  all  of  pewter.  In  addition 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES  IO3 

there  are  two  bands  plus  a  series  of  rectangular  inlays  in  a  low  grade  silver 
or  very  high  quality  pewter;  these  are  held  in  place  with  small  nails.  The 
eye  is  large  and  teardrop  in  form.  The  haft  is  of  the  characteristic  cigar 
shape.  Provenience  unknown. 
H:  7 1"  W:  2 1"  L:  15I"  William  O.  Sweet  collection 

111.  Pipe  tomahawk  with  pewter  inlaid  haft,  mid- 1 8th  century.  Note  the 
short  thick  bowl  sloping  inward  towards  the  top,  the  large  eye,  and  the 
generally  massive  utilitarian  head,  all  characteristic  of  the  early  form.  This 
is  a  simple  specimen  with  few  moldings  and  uncomplicated  inlays,  but  it  is 
an  excellent  unrestored  example  of  its  type.  The  haft  is  maple.  Provenience 
unknown. 

H:  8"  W:  2^"  L:  16"  William  W.  Shemerluk  collection 

112.  Pipe  tomahawk  with  octagonal  bowl,  mid-i8th  century.  Pipes  with 
polygonal  bowls  with  or  without  the  circular  base  are  found  most  frequently 
in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio.  This  particular  specimen  was  recovered  in 
Pennsylvania.  It  is  well  forged  with  sharply  defined  moldings,  a  round  eye, 
and  a  steel  edge. 

H:  6"  W:  2f"  George  O.  Bird  collection 

113.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1750-1800).  The  bowl  is  slightly  straighter  than 
those  of  the  previous  period  (see  No.  iii),  and  it  lacks  a  top  molding,  but 
otherwise  little  is  changed.  The  eye  is  teardrop,  and  the  blade  is  stamped 
with  the  broad  arrow,  symbol  of  British  government  ownership,  on  the 
obverse  side  and  with  the  maker's  name,  PARKE,  on  the  reverse.  (This 
may  possibly  be  William  Parke  who  supplied  axes  to  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company,  1770-1790.)  Such  tomahawks  bearing  government  marks  were 
used  to  arm  the  Indian  allies  of  Great  Britain  during  and  after  the 
Revolution  and  as  treaty  gifts.  Collected  from  the  Mohawk. 

H:  8^"  W:  2I"  mai/hf:  22/7216 

114.  Pipe  tomahawk  with  silver  inlaid  haft,  {ca.  1750).  The  short  inward 
tapering  bowl  and  large  teardrop  eye  are  typical,  and  the  weld  on  the  steel 
edge  is  quite  obvious.  Some  of  the  silver  band  and  diamond  inlays  are  mis- 
sing, but  those  that  remain  bear  engraved  scratchwork  decorations.  The 
haft  is  maple  and  is  slightly  relieved  between  the  two  rear  bands  where  the 
hand  would  grasp  it.  This  piece  is  reported  to  have  been  captured  at  the 
Battle  of  Tippecanoe  in  181 1,  which  would  indicate  a  long  period  of  service. 
Attributed  to  the  Potawatomi. 

H:  8"  W:  2f"  L:  2o|"  mai/hf:  15/8000 

115.  Pipe  tomahawk  with  head  of  the  classic  form  for  the  mid-i8th  century. 
All  of  the  normal  features  for  which  one  looks  in  dating  a  piece  of  this  period 
are  present  in  their  most  typical  shapes  and  proportions :  the  large  teardrop 
eye,  the  ample  bulbous  bowl  sloping  inward  toward  the  top  with  an  edge 
molding,  the  concave  molding  at  the  base  of  the  blade,  the  small  projection 
from  the  rear  of  the  blade  just  below  the  base,  and  the  heavy  functional 
blade  itself  with  its  steel  edge.  The  haft  only  is  atypical,  for  it  is  exceptional- 
ly plain  without  any  taper  for  a  mouthpiece — possibly  a  separate  tubular 
mouthpiece  may  have  been  used.  This  haft  may  not  be  the  original,  but  it 
is  certainly  very  old.  It  was  collected  in  Indiana  and  has  been  attributed  to 
the  Miami. 

H:  8|"  W:  2f"  L:  17^'  mai/hf:  10/2881 


104  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

116.  Crudely  made  pipe  tomahawk  of  the  late  i8th  or  early  19th  century. 
The  eye  is  teardrop.  The  moldings  are  of  the  most  rudimentary,  and  the 
bowl  has  been  made  separately  and  riveted  in  place.  It  was  obtained  from 
the  Mohawk. 

H:  8f"  W:  3^"  mai/hf:  1/2575 

117.  Pipe  tomahawk  with  a  shortened  and  considerably  reworked  blade, 
{ca.  1 750-1 800).  The  eye  is  teardrop,  and  there  are  file  nicks  along  the  front 
of  the  blade  from  just  below  the  base  molding  to  the  reworked  area.  The 
alteration  of  the  blade  probably  took  place  after  the  original  steel  edge  had 
been  worn  away  or  otherwise  lost ;  there  is  no  trace  of  it  left.  Collected  from 
the  Sauk  and  Fox  tribe  in  Illinois. 

H:  7^"  W:  3f"  mai/hf:  18/8274 

118.  Pipe  tomahawk  with  unusual  bowl,  [ca.  1750).  The  eye  is  teardrop, 
and  the  concave  molding  at  the  base  of  the  blade  is  standard.  The  shape  of 
the  bowl,  its  thick  stem  with  two  rings,  and  the  rounded  base  instead  of  the 
more  usual  pointed  one  are  atypical.  The  blade  has  been  shortened  through 
much  sharpening.  Recovered  in  Illinois,  from  the  Sauk. 

H:  7"  W:  2|"  mai/hf:  18/8273 

119.  Pipe  tomahawk  of  the  late  i8th  century  believed  to  have  belonged  to 
Tecumseh.  The  head  is  massive  and  generally  of  the  form  associated  with 
the  second  half  of  the  i8th  century.  The  eye  is  teardrop.  The  blade  bears 
punched  dots  and  engraved  designs.  On  the  obverse  side  is  a  rectangular  sil- 
ver inlay  bearing  the  name  Tuchunye  in  script.  The  reverse  side  bears  a 
silver  diamond  with  an  engraved  monogram  that  is  now  too  worn  to  read. 
The  haft  is  straight  with  only  rudimentary  shaping  around  the  mouthpiece. 
A  separate  tubular  piece  must  have  been  inserted  if  the  pipe  was  to  be 
smoked.  At  one  time  the  haft  was  striped  in  red,  green  and  black,  and  traces 
of  the  paint  still  remain.  The  axe  is  said  to  have  been  obtained  by  General 
Russell  after  Tecumseh's  death  at  the  Battle  of  the  Thames  in  18 13. 
The  tradition  that  the  piece  belonged  to  the  Shawnee  chief  can  be  traced 
back  to  within  fifty  years  of  his  death.  For  another  tomahawk  believed  to 
have  belonged  to  Tecumseh  see  No.  120. 

H:  j\"  W:  2f"  L:  21^"  mai/hf:  1/1158 

120.  Pipe  tomahawk  believed  to  have  belonged  to  Tecumseh,  {ca.  1790- 
18 10).  The  eye  is  a  teardrop,  but  the  pipe  bowl  has  become  taller,  almost 
nozzle  shaped.  The  metal  around  the  eye  is  exceptionally  thick,  and  the 
overall  height  of  the  head  has  increased  with  both  a  taller  bowl  and  a  longer 
blade,  giving  it  the  slightly  attenuated  appearance  frequently  encountered 
in  axes  of  this  type  made  about  the  turn  of  the  century.  The  obverse  side 
of  the  blade  is  engraved  in  script  letters  in  three  vertical  lines  To  Chief 
Tecumseh  /  From  Col.  Proctor  /  MDCCCXII.  (Henry  Proctor  was  com- 
mander of  the  British  forces  with  whom  Tecumseh's  Shawnees  served  in  the 
old  Northwest  during  the  War  of  1812.)  The  reverse  side  of  the  blade  bears 
a  maker's  stamp  in  the  form  of  a  standing  bird  with  the  letters  B  and  E  on 
either  side  plus  a  sun  with  a  human  face,  a  crescent  moon  with  a  face,  and  a 
cluster  of  7  stars  in  a  circle  with  one  in  the  center.  The  same  marks  have 
been  found  on  two  almost  identical  tomahawk  heads  in  private  collections. 
The  sun,  moon,  and  star  markings  are  typical  of  those  found  on  European- 
made  sword  blades  of  the  i8th  and  early  19th  centuries,  and  these  plus  the 
maker's  mark  would  seem  to  indicate  Continental,  probably  French,  manu- 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES  IO5 

facture.  The  haft  is  burned  in  stripes  for  decoration,  and  there  are  two 
protuberances  on  the  lower  edge,  each  pierced  with  a   single  hole  from 
which  thongs  with  beads,  feathers,  scalps,  or  other  decorations  were  un- 
doubtedly suspended. 
H:  gl"  W:  3^"  L:  26^"  mai/hf:  17/6249 

121.  Pipe  tomahawk  of  the  second  half  of  the  i8th  century.  It  is  a  finely 
made  specimen  with  crisp  moldings  and  a  well-developed  bowl  on  a  tall 
stem.  The  eye  is  teardrop.  The  haft  is  curly,  maple  with  a  silver  mouthpiece, 
bands,  and  fore-end  cap.  This  cap  bears  the  initials  GG  in  script.  The  lower 
edge  of  the  haft  has  been  relieved  between  the  bands,  perhaps  to  afford  a 
better  grip  for  the  hand.  Attributed  to  the  Iroquois. 

H:  8"  W:  3"  L:  iSy  mai/hf:  15/159 

122.  A  fine  pipe  tomahawk  of  the  late  18th  century.  The  head  is  lighter 
than  the  earlier  specimens  and  is  slightly  more  sophisticated  in  the  style 
usually  associated  with  the  years  from  1770  to  1800.  The  eye  is  teardrop; 
the  moldings  are  less  massive.  There  are  filed  decorations  consisting  prima- 
rily of  diagonal  lines  and  follow  lines.  A  silver  crescent  is  inlaid  in  the  blade 
and  a  heart  is  at  the  base  of  the  bowl.  The  fore  end  of  the  haft  is  covered  with 
a  cap  of  silver,  and  there  is  a  band  of  silver  just  behind  the  head.  Both  of 
these  are  soldered  to  the  head,  making  a  tight  joint  and  eliminating  the 
need  for  the  usual  thin  leather  shim.  The  haft  is  curly  maple  and  bears 
further  silver  inlays  consisting  of  bands  and  diamonds  bearing  engraved 
scratchwork  designs.  There  is  also  a  silver  mouthpiece.  Provenience 
unknown. 

H:  8f"  W:  2f"  L:  2if"  William  Guthman  collection 

123.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1790-1810).  This  specimen  illustrates  the  at- 
tenuated appearance  of  the  tum-of-the-century  iron  pipe  tomahawk  head 
even  more  emphatically  than  No.  120.  The  pipe  bowl  is  poorly  proportioned 
and  crudely  fashioned.  The  molding  at  the  base  of  the  blade  is  rudimentary, 
and  the  eye,  though  still  teardrop,  is  a  slender  one.  The  edges  of  the  iron 
around  the  eye  and  down  the  front  of  the  blade  have  been  filed  to  make  a 
cusped  border,  and  a  silver  knife  has  been  inlaid  in  the  blade.  Upon  this 
knife  is  engraved  the  name  "H.  Knox"  in  script.  The  haft  is  maple  with  one 
silver  band  and  five  circular  silver  inlays,  all  with  light  scratchwork  and 
floral  engraving.  The  mouthpiece,  which  undoubtedly  was  silver  also,  is 
now  missing.  From  West  Virginia. 

H:  8f"  W:  2|"  L:  19"  Smithsonian  Institution 

usnm:  13515 

124.  Pipe  tomahawk  with  engraved  eagle  and  shield  on  the  blade,  {ca. 
1786-1810).  In  proportion  the  head  of  this  tomahawk  more  closely  resem- 
bles those  of  the  mid-i8th  century.  The  pipe  bowl  is  more  barrel  shaped, 
however,  and  it  is  riveted  to  the  head  instead  of  being  welded,  keyed  or 
made  in  one  pieceas  was  more  common.  The  head  proper  is  thick  and  fiat, 
topped  with  well-developed  step  moldings.  The  raised  central  molding  on 
the  bowl  has  a  continuous  row  of  stamped  circles  for  decoration.  The  prin- 
cipal decorative  device,  however,  is  an  .engraved  American  eagle  with  shield 
clutching  both  arrows  and  an  olive  branch  in  its  claws.  In  place  of  the  stars 
in  the  shield,  however,  there  is  the  word  "TOTE."  There  is  considerable 
speculation  concerning  the  meaning  of  this  word  since  it  appears  on  several 


I06  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

tomahawks  over  a  period  of  a  hundred  years.  {See  No.  203  for  a  very  late 
example.)  It  has  been  thought  to  derive  from  the  Pennsylvania  German 
dialect  as  a  corruption  of  the  German  Todt  meaning  death,  but  this  is  pure 
hypothesis.  The  haft  was  inlaid  with  a  number  of  bands,  strips,  and  discs 
of  silver  held  by  tacks,  but  most  of  these  have  since  disappeared.  The  few 
that  remain  bear  traces  of  simple  scratch  engraving.  A  screw  in  the  fore 
end  helps  spread  the  haft  and  hold  the  head  securely  in  place.  The  mouth- 
piece is  pewter,  held  in  place  with  an  interesting  semi-dovetailed  effect.  The 
haft  also  was  lightly  branded  with  a  file,  but  most  of  this  has  now  worn  off. 
The  provenience  is  not  known. 
H:  8"  W:  2f"  L:  2if"  Robert  Abels  collection 

125.  Pipe  tomahawk,  also  probably  of  British  manufacture,  {ca.  1800). 
Similar  in  most  respects  to  No.  126  except  that  it  is  unmarked  and  the 
fact  that  the  pipe  bowl  was  riveted  and  welded  to  the  poll  can  be  clearly 
seen.  Also,  the  eye  is  round.  Attributed  to  the  Teton  Sioux. 

H:  9^"  W:  3i"  L:  2i|"  mai/hf:  18/2771 

126.  Pipe  tomahawk  by  Holtzappfel,  {ca.  1800).  The  form  of  the  head  is 
typically  attenuated.  The  eye  is  teardrop,  and  the  pipe  bowl  is  straight 
sided  though  there  is  a  slight  inward  taper.  On  the  obverse  side  is  stamped 
the  British  broad  arrow  and  the  letters  BO  (Board  of  Ordnance).  On  the 
reverse  side  the  maker's  name,  "HOLTZAPPFEL,"  is  stamped  in  incised 
capital  letters.  The  mouthpiece  is  turned  and  shaped  but  is  an  integral  part 
of  the  haft.  Attributed  to  the  Sisseton  Sioux. 

H:  9^"  W:  3"  L:  22"  mai/hf:  2/2106 

127.  Pipe  tomahawk,  probably  English,  {ca.  1800) .  Similar  in  all  important 
respects  to  the  preceding  two  specimens,  with  a  teardrop  eye.  The  maker's 
name,  "B.  WOOD,"  is  stamped  in  incised  capital  letters  on  the  reverse  side 
of  the  blade.  The  mouthpiece  is  turned  from  bone.  Collected  from  the 
Assiniboine. 

H:  8^"  W:  3"  L:  22^"  mai/hf:  3/4716 

128.  Pipe  tomahawk,  probably  English,  {ca.  1800).  Similar  to  the  pre- 
ceding three  specimens  in  all  important  respects,  though  the  pipe  bowl  is 
narrower  and  more  poorly  formed.  The  eye  is  teardrop.  The  maker's  name 
is  stamped  on  the  reverse  side  of  the  blade,  "  J  &  C  THOMAS."  Beneath  it 
is  another  word  now  illegible  except  for  the  letters  "AZAR,"  approximately 
in  the  middle.  Attributed  to  the  Plains  Cree. 

H:  8^"  W:  3"  L:  21J"  mai/hf:  19/5704 

129.  Pipe  tomahawk  said  to  have  been  presented  to  Chief  Warrior  at  the 
Big  Tree  Treaty  of  1797.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  pipe  bowl  is  slightly  barrel 
shaped  and  faceted  with  turned  moldings  at  top  and  bottom.  Just  below 
the  base  of  the  bowl  is  inlaid  a  silver  diamond  on  the  reverse  side,  and  on 
the  blade  is  a  silver  cartouche  bearing  the  name  "Chief-Warrior"  engraved 
in  script.  Two  brass  strips  following  the  borders  of  the  blade  are  inlaid  from 
the  base  to  points  opposite  the  ends  of  the  cartouche.  The  haft  is  striped 
maple  with  two  narrow  pewter  bands  and  one  wide  one  at  the  butt.  The 
mouthpiece  is  a  tube  of  bone.  Warrior  is  a  well-known  Iroquois  family 
name. 

H:  81"  W:  3f"  L:  17"  mai/hf:  10/4051 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES  lOJ 

130.  Pipe  tomahawk  {ca.  1 800-1 825),  believed  to  have  belonged  to  the 
famous  Chief  Red  Cloud  (1822-1909)  of  the  Oglala  Sioux.  The  eye  is  oval. 
The  bowl  is  very  slightly  barrel  shaped  with  moldings  at  top  and  bottom. 
A  silver  heart  is  inlaid  in  the  base  of  the  bowl,  a  crescent  at  the  base  of  the 
blade,  and  a  bleeding  heart  in  the  center  of  the  blade.  The  haft  is  maple, 
inlaid  with  silver  bands  and  diamonds.  The  mouthpiece  is  a  silver  tube. 

H:  8^"  W:  3"  L:  16"  mai/hf:  22/7203 

131.  Pipe  tomahawk  made  by  a  Chickasaw  blacksmith  about  1800.  [See 
p.  29.)  The  eye  is  oval.  The  bowl  is  of  the  so-called  acorn  shape  which 
developed  about  1770  and  remained  popular  for  brass  specimens  until  about 
1825.  There  was  an  oval  inlay,  now  missing,  on  the  reverse  side  of  the  blade. 
There  are  traces  of  both  black  and  red  paint  on  the  head  and  on  the  fore- 
end  of  the  haft.  The  haft  bears  an  oval  pewter  inlay  on  the  obverse  side  in  a 
carved  frame.  The  script  initials  EF  are  carved  in  a  scrolled  border  on  the 
reverse,  and  the  butt  is  carved  in  a  rudimentary  scroll. 

H:  7f"  W:  2|"  L:  18"  mai/hf:  7319 

132.  Pipe  tomahawk  with  silver  inlays  and  exceptionally  heavy  blade, 
[ca.  1800-1820).  The  bowl  is  straight  sided  and  almost  stemless.  It  has  filed 
moldings  at  top  and  bottom  and  a  silver  inlaid  band  around  the  center.  On 
the  base  of  the  bowl  is  inlaid  a  silver  heart,  while  a  silver  crescent,  "bleeding 
heart,"  and  designs  resembling  bird  footprints  adorn  the  blade.  The  eye 
is  oval,  and  the  squared  section  below  it  is  exceptionally  heavy  and  deco- 
rated with  filed  moldings.  The  haft  is  apparently  much  more  recent  and  is 
cut  down  to  enter  the  eye.  The  mouthpiece  is  pewter.  Obtained  from  the 
Iroquois. 

H:  8J"  W:  3"  L:  2o|"  mai/hf:  6/341 

133.  English  presentation  pipe  tomahawk  given  to  Chief  Bowles  of  the 
Cherokee,  circa  1800.  [See  p.  33.)  The  vase-shaped  bowl  is  finely  forged  and 
closely  resembles  the  socket  of  a  candlestick  of  the  period.  The  eye  is  oval, 
and  the  blade  flares  symmetrically.  On  the  obverse  side  opposite  the  eye  is 
engraved  "TUSTOWACKHAJO"  in  a  vertical  line.  On  the  blade  is  en- 
graved a  panoply  of  arms  featuring  two  British  flags.  On  the  reverse  side 
is  the  name  "BOWLES."  The  haft  is  cut  down  to  enter  the  eye  and  is 
capped  with  silver  after  it  has  passed  through.  There  is  a  silver  band  with 
borders  two-thirds  of  the  way  to  the  butt,  and  there  is  a  silver  mouthpiece 
with  similar  borders.  The  mouthpiece  and  band  are  connected  by  the  sym- 
bolic "silver  chain  of  friendship"  so  often  referred  to  in  formal  oratory. 
This  is  one  of  the  few  such  presentation  tomahawks  with  the  chain  still 
surviving  intact. 

H:  8"  W:  3f"  L:  20J"  mai/hf:  12/9426 

134.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  18 10-1830),  presented  to  the  Miami  chief  Mesh- 
ingomesia  (1781-1879).  The  eye  is  oval.  The  bowl  is  tall  and  almost  straight 
sided  with  a  well-developed  stem,  indicating  a  date  well  into  the  19th  cen- 
tury. The  entire  head  is  engraved  with  diamonds,  hearts,  crescents,  chevron 
and  scroll  work  designs.  The  haft  is  curly  maple  inlaid  with  silver  bands, 
diamonds,  and  circles.  There  is  a  silver  fore-end  cap  and  a  silver  mouth- 
piece. All  mounts  are  engraved  with  formal  borders  and  designs  and  are 
held  in  place  by  tacks.  [See  p.  32.) 

H:  8''  W:  3"  L:  23I''  mai/hf:  14/5983 


I08  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

135.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 815-1835).  This  is  the  type  shown  most  often 
by  CatUn  in  his  paintings,  through  it  is  actually  quite  a  rare  type.  It  has  a 
round  eye,  the  whole  blade  curves  back  slightly,  and  the  edge  is  on  a  slant. 
The  bowl  expands  slightly  toward  the  top  and  with  its  molding  at  the  top  of 
the  stem  somewhat  resembles  a  candlestick.  Both  sides  of  the  pipe  base 
molding  are  inlaid  with  silver  shields,  and  both  sides  of  the  blade  bear  silver 
ovals.  The  haft  is  banded  with  silver  held  in  place  by  rows  of  round-headed 
brass  tacks;  the  silver  mouthpiece  is  similarly  fastened.  Attributed  to  the 
Shawnee. 

H:  8''  W:  2f''  L:  19^"  mai/hf:  20/4921 

136.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 825-1 850),  An  earlier  version  of  the  type  that 
became  most  popular  from  about  1840  to  i860,  it  is  well  forged  with  an 
ample  bowl  which  is  now  taller,  and  distinctly  barrel  shaped.  The  eye  is 
oval,  and  there  are  numerous  filed  moldings  for  decoration  as  well  as  silver 
inlays.  These  inlays  consist  of  a  silver  crescent  on  the  obverse  side  and  a 
horizontal  band  (now  missing) ;  on  the  reverse  side  there  was  a  circle  and 
another  horizontal  band,  both  of  which  are  now  lacking.  The  wooden  haft 
is  plain  and  generally  of  the  early  type.  There  is  a  lead  mouthpiece  and  a 
fore-end  cap  also  of  lead.  Just  behind  the  head  is  another  lead  band  with  a 
serrated  rear  edge.  Attributed  to  the  Shawnee. 

H:  61"  W:  2^'  L:  15 J''  mai/hf:  2/484 

137.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1830-1850).  Another  Shawnee  specimen  of  a 
form  of  tomahawk  popular  during  the  second  quarter  of  the  19th  century, 
but  showing  some  later  features  than  No.  136.  The  bowl  is  a  little  taller  and 
has  almost  achieved  the  shape  that  became  standard  shortly  after  1850. 
The  edge  is  straighter,  and  although  the  rear  line  of  the  blade  is  still  slightly 
concave,  it  gives  evidence  of  the  approaching  straight  side  so  typical  of 
axes  of  the  second  half  of  the  century.  The  eye  is  also  a  pointed  ellipse,  ap- 
proaching the  diamond  shape  found  in  the  later  specimens.  The  haft  is 
quite  recent,  and  the  gasket  between  the  haft  and  the  inside  of  the  eye  is  of 
cloth,  a  very  late  feature.  The  haft  is  finished  an  unnaturally  light  color  and 
is  inlaid  with  silver  diamonds  and  triangles. 

H:  7^'  W:  2^'  L:  15I''  mai/hf:  2/4812 

138.  Very  fine  example  of  a  pipe  tomahawk,  probably  made  in  the  first 
quarter  of  the  19th  century.  The  bowl  is  quite  tall  in  proportion  to  its  di- 
ameter, but  it  tapers  inward  slightly  toward  the  top.  The  eye  is  a  teardrop, 
and  the  molding  beneath  the  eye  is  well  developed.  On  the  obverse  side 
there  is  a  silver  crescent  inlay,  and  on  the  reverse  is  a  silver  oval.  The  haft 
is  of  the  early  form,  inlaid  with  silver  diamonds  and  bands  decorated  with 
scratchwork  engraving.  The  mouthpiece  is  silver,  and  an  unusual  feature  is 
a  spiral  brass  band  which  runs  the  entire  length  of  the  haft.  Collected  from 
the  Mandan. 

H:  6Y'  W:  2Y'  L:  i6|''  mai/hf:  19/639 

139.  Pipe  tomahawk  dated  1829.  There  are  many  early  features  on  this 
well-forged  specimen.  The  eye  is  teardrop,  and  the  bowl,  although  tall, 
retains  early  moldings  at  its  base.  The  moldings  below  the  eye  also  reflect 
the  taste  of  the  late  i8th  or  early  19th  century.  The  obverse  of  the  blade  is 
decorated  with  brass  inlays  including  a  bird,  the  letters  OC,  the  date  1829, 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES  lOQ 

and  foliage.  On  the  reverse  side  the  inlays  consist  of  a  tree  and  scrollwork; 
the  edge  is  steel.  Attributed  to  the  Sauk  and  Fox. 

H:  6|"  W:  3"  mai/hf:  18/8272 

140  and  141 .  Pipe  tomahawks  which  belonged  to  the  Sauk  chief  Keokuk, 
( 1 780-1 848).  Both  were  given  to  Indian  Agent  Woodyard  by  Moses  Keokuk 
who  stated  that  they  had  belonged  to  his  father.  No.  140  must  have  been 
given  to  Keokuk  late  in  life  after  the  crises  of  the  Black  Hawk  War  when 
he  fell  from  favor  with  his  people.  The  blade  is  almost  the  fully  developed 
form  of  the  second  half  of  the  century,  although  there  are  a  few  earlier 
features,  especially  the  heaviness  of  the  metal  around  the  eye.  The  pipe  also 
is  a  slightly  earlier  form  with  its  bulbous  moldings.  The  eye  is  oval.  There 
are  inlaid  triangles  on  either  side  of  the  bowl  base  molding,  two  horizontal 
bars  on  either  side  of  the  eye,  and  a  diamond  in  the  center  of  the  blade,  all 
of  silver.  Further  decoration  of  this  fine  quality  head  is  provided  with 
stamped  crosses  and  crescents.  The  haft  has  a  silver  front  cap  which  has 
been  covered  with  lead,  and  a  lead  band  is  at  the  rear  of  the  head,  making 
a  tight  seal.  In  addition,  there  are  a  series  of  silver  bands  and  diamonds. 
There  is  no  mouthpiece  except  for  the  shaping  of  the  wood. 

No.  141  is  also  an  especially  fine  piece  and  slightly  earlier;  it  could  well 
have  belonged  to  Keokuk  at  the  time  of  the  Black  Hawk  War.  The  eye  is  a 
teardrop.  The  bowl  is  short  and  of  large  diameter,  and  the  blade  form  is 
early.  There  is  a  brass  or  copper  front  plate  covered  with  lead  which, 
together  with  a  lead  band  just  behind  the  head,  forms  a  tight  seal.  The  haft 
tapers  at  the  rear  in  the  earlier  form  as  contrasted  with  the  later  concave 
taper  exhibited  in  No.  140.  There  is  a  pewter  mouthpiece  with  a  serrated 
edge  adjoining  the  haft,  and  several  silver  bands  and  a  silver  heart  are  inlaid 
along  the  sides  of  the  haft. 

No.  140.  H:  7J"  W:  2^'  L:  14I"  mai/hf:  12/744 

No.  141.  H:  6|''  W:  2^"  L:  15I''  mai/hf:  12/745 

142.  A  most  unusual  pipe  tomahawk  with  bilaterally  flaring  blade,  [ca. 
1 840-1 850).  The  eye  is  round.  The  bowl  is  tall  and  is  welded  to  the  flat  poll. 
On  either  side  of  the  eye  are  filed  moldings  in  a  reeding  pattern.  The  blade 
is  even  more  remarkable  by  having  two  convex  brass  bosses  soldered  on 
either  side  and  by  the  fact  that  three  circular  holes  are  bored  through  just 
above  the  edge.  The  haft  is  grooved  along  its  lower  edge  and  is  wrapped 
with  copper  wire.  It  was  found  in  Ohio  and  acquired  by  the  Smithsonian 
in  1868. 

H:  8^"  W:  4I-"  L:  17^''  Smithsonian  Institution 

usnm:  7339 

143.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1835-1850).  The  blade,  forged  of  iron  with  a 
steel  edge,  has  here  assumed  the  shape  most  characteristic  of  the  1840's 
and  early  1850's  with  a  notch  just  below  the  eye  forming  a  narrow  waist 
above  a  pronounced  rearward  flare  to  the  heel.  The  bowl  is  tall  with  several 
moldings  and  tapers  slightly  inward  towards  the  top.  The  entire  head  is 
decorated  with  an  overall  pattern  of  punched  dots.  The  eye  is  oval.  The 
haft  is  inlaid  with  pewter  bands,  and  there  is  a  pewter  mouthpiece.  At- 
tributed to  the  Iroquois,  New  York. 

H:  7^"  W:  2^"  L:  igf"  mai/hf:  14/4873 


no  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

144.  Pipe  tomahawk  by  Carlos  Gove,  [ca.  1 840-1 854).  A  well-made  axe 
that  would  seem  to  have  been  made  during  Gove's  tenure  at  the  Potawatomi 
Agency  or  at  St.  Joseph.  The  eye  is  oval,  and  the  notch  below  the  eye  is  not 
so  pronounced  as  in  some  specimens.  The  bowl  is  tall  and  slightly  barrel 
shaped  with  well-executed  moldings.  The  workmanship  throughout  is  ex- 
cellent, especially  the  filing  of  the  moldings  on  either  side  of  the  eye.  The 
obverse  of  the  blade  bears  a  large  stamp  of  concentric  cabled  rings  with 
some  wavy  lines  between  the  rings.  In  the  center  are  four  eagle  heads  and 
the  name  C.  GOVE.  The  reverse  side  is  engraved  with  a  walking  bird  and 
several  tree  stumps.  The  haft  is  inlaid  with  pewter  bands  and  diamonds, 
and  the  mouthpiece  is  pewter.  Attributed  to  the  Potawatomi(  ?).  For 
another  pipe  tomahawk  by  Gove,  see  No.  147. 

H:  7I"  W:  2|"  L:  20^"  mai/hf:  22/7220 

145.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 840-1 850).  In  this  specimen  the  notch  below 
the  eye  is  not  nearly  as  sharp  as  in  some,  but  the  narrow  waist  is  quite 
apparent.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  tall  bowl  is  faceted  with  cabled  moldings  at 
top  and  bottom  and  a  slight  outward  flare  toward  the  top.  There  is  a  series 
of  brass  inlays  in  the  form  of  bars  across  the  blade  between  the  eye  and  the 
waist,  and  there  are  triangular  inlays,  a  diamond,  and  a  star  around  the 
sides  of  the  eye.  The  haft  is  inlaid  with  pewter  bands  and  rectangles,  and 
there  is  a  pewter  cap.  The  mouthpiece  is  lead.  Collected  in  Oklahoma  from 
the  Caddo. 

H:  61"  W:  2"  L:  i4f''  mai/hf:  2/2398 

146.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 825-1 840).  The  shorter,  thicker  form  of  this 
specimen  is  readily  apparent  when  compared  with  the  three  previous  ones. 
It  is  forged  of  iron  with  a  steel  edge,  and  the  eye  is  round.  The  bowl  is  short 
and  thick  with  cabled  moldings  top  and  bottom.  The  haft  is  inlaid  with 
pewter  bands  and  diamonds,  and  there  is  a  pewter  mouthpiece.  Collected 
from  the  Creek  tribe  in  Oklahoma. 

H:  6Y'  W:  2Y'  L:  13I''  mai/hf:  2/7567 

147.  Pipe  tomahawk  by  Carlos  Gove,  {ca.  1 845-1 854).  This  axe  also  prob- 
ably dates  from  Gove's  years  in  St.  Joseph,  but  it  is  later  in  its  design  than 
No.  144.  It  was  collected  among  the  Potawatomi  with  whom  Gove  had  been 
associated  as  Agency  gunsmith.  In  this  specimen  the  eye  has  assumed  the 
diamond  form  typical  of  the  1850's  and  later.  The  blade  also  is  assuming 
the  fiat  straight-sided  form  which  became  more  pronounced  in  the  next 
decade.  The  bowl  is  tall  and  barrel  shaped  with  simple  moldings  at  top  and 
bottom,  but  it  is  slightly  thicker  than  the  later  examples.  There  is  a  brass 
band  inlaid  around  the  pipe  bowl,  and  a  silver  disc  is  inlaid  on  the  obverse 
of  the  blade.  This  disc  is  stamped  with  a  series  of  short  arcs  and  small  circles 
which  form  a  conventionalized  flower  and  border.  Around  the  silver  disc  is 
engraved  a  larger  double  circle,  and  conventional  flowers  are  stamped  in  the 
space  between.  The  name  C.  GOVE  is  stamped  above  a  longer  word,  now 
illegible.  The  haft  is  covered  with  punch  marks,  and  there  is  a  pewter  cap 
and  mouthpiece.  See  also  No.  144. 

H:  61"  W:  2^"  L:  i8f"  mai/hf:  2/7569 

148.  Pipe  tomahawk  with  widely  flaring  blade,  {ca.  1835-1850).  The  un- 
usual rear  line  of  the  blade  almost  obscures  the  thin  waist  and  other 
characteristics  of  the  axes  of  the  1840's,  but  nevertheless  this  specimen 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES  III 

belongs  to  that  period.  The  eye  is  round,  and  the  bowl  is  short  and  thick, 
both  early  features  which  might  indicate  a  date  in  the  opening  years  of  the 
period.  The  blade  is  highly  decorated  with  both  stamping  and  silver  inlays. 
Only  traces  of  the  stamping  remain,  but  it  comprised  floral  sprays.  The 
inlays  consist  of  a  band  around  the  bowl,  triangles,  lines,  and  a  crescent  on 
the  obverse  side  and  a  diamond,  lines,  and  triangles  on  the  reverse.  The  haft 
is  tiger  striped,  but  otherwise  undecorated.  From  the  Iroquois;  collected  in 
New  York. 

H:  6-|"  W:  2^"  L:  iif  mai/hf:  22/4005 

149.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 840-1 850).  Compared  with  the  large  eye  and 
bowl,  the  small  blade  of  this  axe  seems  quite  out  of  proportion.  The  eye  is 
oval;  the  bowl  tall  and  flaring  out  towards  the  top.  There  is  a  cabled 
molding  at  the  neck,  but  none  at  the  top.  Above  the  narrow  waist  the 
corners  of  the  blade  are  filed  in  a  series  of  notches.  Below  the  waist  are 
copper  inlays  consisting  of  a  series  of  three  lines  and  a  heart.  The  haft  is 
inlaid  with  silver  bands  and  rectangles.  The  mouthpiece  and  cap  are  pewter 
or  lead.  Attributed  to  the  Caddo  in  Oklahoma. 

H:  7"  W:  2."  L:  i6|"  mai/hf:  2/2397 

150.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 830-1 850) .  A  finely  made  specimen  with  an  oval 
eye  and  well-developed  moldings  on  the  bowl  and  at  the  base  of  the  blade. 
The  bowl  itself  is  quite  short,  but  it  is  situated  upon  a  long  neck  and  a  high 
poll.  In  addition  to  the  moldings,  the  decoration  consists  of  stamped 
crescents  along  the  borders  of  the  blade,  a  cartouche  and  a  heart  inlaid  in 
brass  on  the  obverse,  and  a  silver  cartouche  and  diamond  with  a  copper 
circle  in  its  center  on  the  reverse.  The  haft  is  decorated  with  silver  bands,  a 
pewter  cap,  and  a  pewter  mouthpiece.  Attributed  to  the  Caddo  in  Oklahoma. 

H:  6"  W:  2Y'  L:  13!"  mai/hf:  12/866 

151.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 840-1 855).  In  this  specimen,  which  was  ob- 
tained from  a  Cherokee  man,  the  features  of  the  1840's  are  giving  way  to 
those  of  the  1850's.  The  narrow  waist  of  the  blade  has  moved  up  just  below 
the  eye.  The  eye  itself  is  diamond  shaped,  and  there  is  a  slight  forward  flare 
to  the  front  line  of  the  blade.  The  bowl  is  barrel  shaped,  but  not  so  tall 
and  slender  as  in  later  forms.  There  are  well-developed  moldings  on  the 
lower  portion  of  the  eye,  and  there  are  punched  decorations  of  convention- 
alized flowers  and  floral  sprays  made  up  of  many  individual  short  straight 
lines.  The  haft  has  a  pewter  cap  but  is  otherwise  plain,  except  for  notches 
carved  in  the  narrowed  mouthpiece. 

H:  j\"  W:  2f"  L:  18^''  mai/hf:  20/4929 

152.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1830-1850).  Forged  of  very  soft  iron,  this  speci- 
men presents  both  an  unusual  bowl  and  haft.  The  bowl  is  tall  with  a  groove 
around  its  center  and  a  cabled  molding  at  its  base.  The  eye  is  a  pointed 
ellipse,  almost  diamond  shaped,  but  not  quite  fully  developed.  The  filed 
moldings  at  the  base  of  the  blade  are  characteristic.  The  haft  has  an  unusual 
swelling  two-thirds  of  the  way  towards  the  free  end  and  then  tapers  more 
sharply  to  the  lead  mouthpiece.  There  is  also  a  lead  fore-end  cap.  Like 
No.  186,  it  was  collected  from  the  Mexican  Kickapoo,  and  was  said  to  have 
been  brought  with  them  when  they  fled  Texas  in  1852. 

H:  6|-"  W:  2"  L:  15"  mai/hf:  2/4539 


112  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

153.  Pipe  tomahawk  by  Horace  Dimick,  {ca.  1 849-1 860).  The  axe  is  of 
the  style  normally  associated  with  the  1840's  with  a  thin  waist  well  below 
the  bottom  of  the  eye.  Dimick  did  not  move  to  St.  Louis  until  1849,  how- 
ever, so  that  a  tomahawk  bearing  that  address  could  not  have  been  made 
earlier.  It  is  a  handsome  specimen  worthy  of  the  fine  workmanship  found 
also  in  his  target  rifles.  The  bowl  is  relatively  wide  in  proportion  to  its 
height  and  flares  slightly  towards  the  top.  There  are  moldings  at  both  top 
and  bottom.  The  eye  itself  is  oval,  but  the  outer  surfaces  have  been  filed  to 
give  an  indication  of  the  diamond  shape  soon  to  become  almost  universal. 
Silver  inlays  in  straight  lines  and  geometrical  patterns  decorate  the  blade, 
and  there  are  also  punched  crescents.  On  the  reverse  also  is  a  two-line 
stamping  "H.  E.  DIMICK  /  ST.  LOUIS."  The  haft  is  absolutely  plain 
except  for  one  brass  tack  on  the  obverse  side,  just  behind  the  head.  At- 
tributed to  the  Nez  Perce. 

H:  7^''W:  2.\" 'L:  16"  mai/hf:  20/4924 

154.  Pipe  tomahawk  with  exceptionally  long  and  heavily  carved  haft, 
[ca.  1830-1850).  The  eye  is  teardrop  in  the  earlier  form.  The  tall  simple 
bowl  is  almost  barrel  shaped,  but  with  a  molding  only  at  the  top  and  no 
neck.  It  is  threaded  and  screws  into  the  poll.  There  are  no  moldings  of  any 
kind.  By  contrast  with  the  plain  head,  the  haft  is  elaborately  carved  in  a 
series  of  scrolls  along  the  top,  bottom,  and  sides  as  the  haft  itself  changes 
from  a  vertical  diamond  at  the  head  to  a  flattened  diamond  at  the  mouth- 
piece. The  general  effect  is  heightened  by  the  use  of  red  and  green  paint. 
From  the  Ottawa. 

H:  6"  W:  2|-''  L:  2o|"  mai/hf:  15/6256 

155.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 840-1 860).  This  very  simple  specimen  reflects 
several  early  aspects,  but  the  design  of  the  bowl  and  the  workmanship  in- 
dicate a  date  in  the  second  quarter  of  the  century  rather  than  in  the  first, 
as  might  be  assumed  at  first  glance.  The  eye  is  teardrop  and  ample  in  size 
with  a  simple  molding  below.  The  bowl  is  tall  and  generally  urn  shaped.  It 
has  been  carefully  filed  in  a  series  of  diamond-shaped  facets  just  below  the 
top  molding  and  six  fiat  facets  below  these.  The  rest  of  the  head  is  starkly 
simple  in  contrast.  The  haft  is  recent,  with  a  cloth  gasket  inside  the  eye. 
Collected  from  the  Shawnee. 

H:  6|''  W:  2I''  L:  16"  mai/hf:  10/2889 

156.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 850-1 870),  A  crudely  formed  specimen  forged 
in  one  piece  from  a  tube.  The  eye  is  a  teardrop  but  small.  There  is  almost 
no  delineation  of  the  neck  and  only  a  suggestion  of  moldings  on  the  bowl. 
The  haft  is  plain  except  for  a  shaped  mouthpiece.  Attributed  to  the 
Winnebago. 

H:  5"  W:  2I"  L:  14"  mai/hf:  21/5041 

157.  Simple  pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1840-1860).  The  workmanship  and  over- 
all design  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  No.  155,  and  indeed  the  basic 
forgings  may  have  been  identical,  the  surface  differences  being  produced  by 
the  finish  filing.  The  general  shape,  including  the  ample  teardrop  eye  and 
simple  molding  at  the  base  of  the  blade,  strongly  indicates  manufacture  by 
the  same  hand.  Even  the  outer  dimensions  are  identical  to  within  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  in  height.  In  this  instance  the  bowl  is  filed  into  an  octago- 
nal form  without  the  more  complicated  diamond  facets,  but  then  the  eye 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES  II3 

area  has  been  faceted  instead.  The  haft  is  simple  and  straight  with  a  horn 

mouthpiece.  Attributed  to  the  Wyandot. 

H:  61''  W:  2^"  L:  15!''  mai/hf:  1/9565 

158.  Simple  pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 840-1 860).  Another  specimen  apparently 
by  the  same  hand.  This  time  the  base  of  the  bowl  is  not  as  well  finished, 
and  the  top  of  the  blade  has  been  filed  away  at  the  rear  to  produce  more  of 
a  flare.  All  basic  elements  are  the  same,  however,  and  the  dimensions  are 
almost  identical.  The  haft  in  this  instance  is  considerably  more  ornate,  with 
a  series  of  brass  bands  and  a  pewter  mouthpiece.  Attributed  to  the  Cherokee. 
H:  7"  W:  2^"  L:  16^"  mai/hf:  1/9864 

159.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 830-1 850).  A  very  well-forged  head  with  the 
steel  edge  clearly  discernible,  even  in  the  photograph.  The  eye  is  teardrop. 
The  bowl  is  a  bit  ponderous,  but  well  finished  with  straight  sides  and  octag- 
onal bands  top  and  bottom.  The  double  molding  at  the  base  of  the  neck 
where  it  joins  the  poll  is  particularly  well  done.  Aside  from  the  moldings,  the 
only  other  decoration  consists  of  a  series  of  stamped  ovals  which  form  a 
border  around  the  eye  area.  The  haft  is  plain  with  a  pewter  mouthpiece. 
From  the  Seneca  in  Oklahoma. 

H:  6f''  W:  2^'  L:  i5f''  mai/hf:  10/2882 

160.  Elaborate  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 840-1 860).  The  basic  form  with 
narrow-waisted  blade,  oval  eye  and  tall  thick  bowl  has  been  decorated  with 
an  inlaid  silver  heart  and  bars  of  silver  and  copper,  as  well  as  with  punched 
circles.  The  haft  has  been  inlaid  with  silver  bands  and  rectangles,  and  there 
is  a  pewter  mouthpiece  and  cap.  There  are  also  traces  of  file  branding.  The 
early  shape  of  the  haft  and  the  type  of  decoration  would  tend  to  indicate  a 
date  within  the  early  part  of  the  general  period  given  above.  Collected  from 
a  Caddo  woman  in  Oklahoma. 

H:  7"  W:  2^"  L:  15^''  mai/hf:  2/2396 

161.  Pipe  tomahawk  with  a  head  of  the  1 840-1 860  type  and  late  19th 
century  haft.  The  head  is  a  simple  forging  of  the  narrow-waisted  type  with 
an  oval  eye  and  a  tall  thick  bowl.  The  haft,  however,  is  rectangular  in 
section  and  is  so  heavily  decorated  it  could  be  used  only  for  display ;  it  is  not 
even  pierced  for  smoking.  It  is  studded  with  brass  tacks.  A  feather  is  at- 
tached to  a  tack  in  the  fore  end,  and  a  socket  of  buckskin  with  an  attached 
beaded  flap  covers  the  other.  The  flap  is  34  inches  long,  is  beaded,  and 
terminates  in  a  long  section  of  red  cloth.  Further  decoration  is  provided 
with  ermine  fur,  fringe,  and  hawk  bells.  Attributed  to  the  Shoshoni.  See 
frontispiece. 

H:  8"  W:  2^'  L:  24^'  mai/hf:  2/3330 

162.  Pipe  tomahawk  by  Joseph  Jourdain.  A  finely  forged  hatchet  made 
towards  the  end  of  his  career,  circa  1 845-1 855.  The  eye  is  a  pointed  ellipse, 
not  quite  a  diamond.  The  tall  bowl  tapers  inward  towards  the  top  where 
there  is  an  incised  follow  line  but  no  molding.  On  the  blade  are  a  series  of 
circular  touches  with  raised  crosses  in  them  reminiscent  of  those  found  on 
the  simple  trade  hatchets  of  the  late  17th  and  early  i8th  centuries.  In  ad- 
dition, there  are  brass  inlays  of  conventionalized  floral  sprays  radiating  from 
a  common  center  plus  two  bands  around  the  bowl.  The  haft  is  completely 
plain.  Collected  from  the  Mahican. 

H:  7l''  W:  3"  L:  26''  mai/hf:  1/2131 


114  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

163.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1849).  This  specimen  is  of  the  same  general  style 
of  the  Jourdain  tomahawk  mentioned  above,  but  much  more  criidely  made. 
The  eye  is  a  pointed  ellipse.  The  bowl  is  tall  with  a  slight  inward  taper  at 
the  top  and  no  upper  molding.  Most  interesting  is  the  fact  that  a  United 
States  penny,  dated  1849,  is  inlaid  on  the  reverse  side  of  the  blade,  thus 
helping  to  fix  its  date.  The  haft  is  wrapped  with  brass  wire  over  which  are 
two  bands  of  red  cloth  with  black-and-white  beadwork.  Attributed  to  the 
Sauk  and  Fox. 

H:  7f''  W:  2\"  L:  \^\"  mai/hf:  16/4766 

164.  Pipe  tomahawk,  second  half  of  the  19th  century.  This  specimen  is  dif- 
ficult to  date  precisely.  The  bowl  is  of  a  type  normally  associated  with  the 
period  1 840-1 860,  but  the  narrowness  of  the  band  around  the  eye,  the  shape 
of  the  blade  and  the  workmanship,  would  seem  to  indicate  a  date  consider- 
ably later  than  that.  The  eye  is  round.  The  decoration  consists  of  cabled 
moldings  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  bowl  and  incised  lines  as  its  base  and 
around  the  eye  area.  The  haft  is  carved  into  four  segments  separated  by 
double  ring  moldings.  The  rear  three  of  these  segments  have  four  flat  faces, 
each  of  which  bears  two  pointed  ellipses  of  pewter  nailed  in  place  and 
stamped  XXX.  There  is  a  pewter  mouthpiece  and  an  end  cap.  Attributed 
to  the  Potawatomi. 

H:  ']\"  W:  2\"  L:  lyf'  mai/hf:  16/9268 

165.  Pipe  tomahawk,  second  half  of  the  19th  century.  Like  the  previous 
specimen,  this  is  also  difficult  to  date  precisely ;  it  varies  so  much  from  any 
common  pattern  that  there  are  no  readily  recognizable  and  datable  features. 
The  long  neck  and  tall  bowl  would  place  it  no  earlier  than  mid-century, 
however.  The  blade  is  very  narrow,  and  the  eye  is  round.  The  shaft  is 
short  and  plain  except  for  a  pewter  mouthpiece  and  a  pewter  end  cap  which 
has  chevrons  engraved  upon  it.  From  the  Fox  tribe  in  Iowa. 

H:  6f '  W:  ij"  L:  laf"  mai/hf:  2/7865 

166.  Pipe  tomahawk,  mid- 19th  century.  The  tall  bowl  with  its  urn  shape, 
the  oval  eye,  and  the  raised  moldings  stamped  with  crescents  in  the  eye 
area  are  all  typical  of  the  middle  decades  of  the  last  century.  The  blade  is 
quite  unusual  but  seems  to  be  an  early  variant  of  the  thin  straight-sided 
form  which  became  most  popular  in  the  i86o's  and  1870's.  The  reverse  side 
has  a  border  of  stamped  bow  and  narrow  designs.  The  haft  is  plain.  At- 
tributed to  the  Sioux. 

H:  7''  W:  2\"  L:  19^"  mai/hf:  15/3382 

167.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1850-1870).  This  example  is  identical  to  No.  163 
except  that  it  does  not  have  the  inlaid  penny  and  its  haft  is  decorated  dif- 
ferently. In  this  instance  the  haft  is  studded  with  brass  tacks  along  the  top 
and  in  a  single  diagonal  band.  There  are  also  traces  of  file  branding.  Sus- 
pended on  rawhide  thongs  from  a  hole  in  the  bottom  are  a  feather  with  its 
quill  wrapped  in  red  cloth,  brass  and  bone  beads  and  two.  32  caliber 
Smith  &  Wesson  cartridge  cases.  From  a  Chippewa  collection. 

H:  ^\"  W:  2.\"  L:  18^"  mai/hf:  18/4764 

168.  Pipe  tomahawk,  second  half  of  the  19th  century.  The  general  size 
and  design  of  this  specimen,  aside  from  the  bowl,  would  tend  to  indicate  a 
fairly  early  date.  The  eye  is  teardrop.  The  blade  is  large  and  functional  with 
a  curving  flare  to  the  rear.  The  workmanship,  however,  is  crude  and  not  in 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES  I15 

keeping  with  an  early  date.  Moreover,  the  bowl  is  small  in  proportion  to  the 
head  and  poorly  developed.  The  haft  is  plain  and  appears  to  be  more  recent 
than  the  head.  From  the  Cayuga  of  New  York. 
H:  7f"  W:  2^'  L:  18''  mai/hf:  10/4048 

169.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 850-1 860).  A  factory-made  specimen,  this 
bears  a  partially  legible  name  ending  in  "SON  /  PITTSBURGH,  PA"  in 
two  lines.  The  eye  is  rectangular.  The  bowl  flares  outward  towards  the  top 
and  is  completely  devoid  of  moldings.  It  rests  upon  a  flattened  poll  wide 
enough  to  taper  to  the  edge  in  a  straight  line  without  expanding  in  the  area 
of  the  eye.  The  haft  is  plain  except  for  a  rawhide  thong  which  may  at  one 
time  have  attached  a  feather,  bells,  or  other  decorations.  Said  to  have  been 
obtained  from  a  Canadian  Mohawk  Indian. 

H:  6''  W:  i|"  L:  i2|"  mai/hf:  1/2376 

170.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 850-1 860).  The  blade  shape  of  this  axe  is  most 
unusual,  with  the  two  basal  processes  above  an  almost  hemispherical  sec- 
tion. The  eye  is  oval,  and  the  bowl  is  straight  sided  with  an  outward  flare. 
It  has  no  neck  and  no  moldings.  The  haft  seems  more  recent  than  the  head, 
and  is  plain  except  for  file  branding.  Attributed  to  the  Nez  Perce. 

H:  5Y'  W:  3''  L:  17^"  mai/hf:  20/4922 

171.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 850-1 860).  This  specimen,  of  unknown  prov- 
enience, presents  an  interesting  transition  between  the  blade  form  with  a 
straight  forward  line  and  a  flare  to  the  rear  (which  had  been  the  most 
popular  style  for  over  a  century)  and  the  double  straight-sided  flare  which 
became  popular  in  the  i86o's  and  almost  universal  in  the  1870's.  The  eye  is 
oval,  and  the  bowl  is  well  developed,  flaring  outward  slightly  with  moldings 
at  the  top  and  bottom.  The  date  181 1  has  been  stamped  on  the  head  in 
recent  years. 

H:  6|'' W:  3f''  mai/hf:  22/7324 

172.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 850-1 870).  This  interesting  specimen  is  of  the 
same  general  group  as  numbers  163  and  167.  It  is  distinguished,  however, 
by  moldings  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  bowl  and  by  a  most  unusual  basal 
process  at  the  rear  of  the  blade.  The  eye  is  in  this  instance  a  teardrop.  The 
haft  has  been  file  branded  and  studded  with  brass  tacks.  At  the  end,  near 
the  mouthpiece,  is  tied  a  sunburst  decoration  of  feathers.  Attribution  given 
only  as  "Plains." 

H:  7f"  W:  3^''  L:  20"  mai/hf:  6980 

173.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1850-1870).  Another  specimen  of  the  same  gen- 
eral category  as  the  previous  axe.  In  this  instance,  however,  the  eye  is 
round,  and  the  bowl  is  characterized  by  a  sudden  inward  taper  halfway 
between  its  top  and  bottom  moldings.  The  plain  wooden  haft  has  been 
varnished,  and  there  are  two  groups  of  serrations  carved  into  the  lower 
edge.  It  is  one  of  the  few  Seminole  specimens  encountered  in  this  study. 
H:  61"  W:  3^''  L:  25^''  mai/hf:  4/5105 

174.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 840-1 860).  Very  slender  in  proportion  to  its 
height,  this  axe  is  dominated  by  its  pipe  bowl.  This  feature  is  tall  with  a 
well-defined  neck  and  flares  outward  toward  the  top.  It  is  girdled  with  a 
series  of  grooves  and  moldings,  some  of  them  cabled.  Raised  moldings  are 
also  found  as  borders  around  the  eye  area.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  haft  is 


Il6  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

plain,  though  once  it  was  studded  with  brass  tacks  along  its  upper  edge.  A 
rawhide  thong  is  tied  through  a  hole  immediately  adjacent  to  the  mouth- 
piece. Attributed  to  the  Teton  Sioux. 
H:  6J"  W:  2f  L:  20J''  mai/hf:  16/5174 

175.  Pipe  tomahawk  by  O.  B.  Sprague,  {ca.  1 825-1 850).  Probably  of 
English  manufacture,  this  specimen  has  the  simple  base  molding  and  ex- 
aggerated rearw^ard  flare  of  the  blade  characteristic  of  the  1830's.  The  eye 
also  is  teardrop,  but  the  bowl  is  almost  of  the  barrel-shaped  type  and  sits 
upon  a  long  neck,  which  is  usually  a  later  style.  The  maker's  name  appears  in 
a  vertical  line  on  the  reverse  side  of  the  blade.  The  haft  is  studded  with  brass 
tacks,  and  one  band  of  incised  lines  is  carved  around  it.  Collected  from  the 
Chippewa. 

H:  6''  W:  2|''  L:  23"  mai/hf:  18/4928 

176.  Pipe  tomahawk  with  porcupine  quill  and  feather  decorations,  {ca. 
1 850-1 870).  By  no  means  a  highly  finished  or  refined  piece,  this  tomahawk 
has  considerable  strength  and  force  in  its  forging.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  bowl 
sits  atop  a  long  neck  and  has  moldings  at  top  and  bottom  and  uneven  flat 
surfaces  filed  around  its  lower  half.  Most  unusual  are  the  filed  moldings  at 
the  base  of  the  blade.  Instead  of  being  horizontal  and  parallel,  these  grooves 
slant  so  that  the  upper  ones  rise  part  way  up  the  eye  area.  The  haft  bears 
traces  of  red  paint  and  is  pierced  with  three  holes.  From  each  of  these  holes 
a  group  of  feathers  is  suspended,  attached  to  rawhide  thongs  around  which 
porcupine  quills,  stained  red,  white,  blue,  and  green,  have  been  wrapped. 
Collected  among  the  Sioux. 

H:  6"  W:  2f"  L:  22"  William  O.  Sweet  collection 

177.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 875-1 900).  During  the  late  19th  century,  and 
even  early  in  the  20th  century,  a  group  of  tall,  thin  pipe  tomahawks  was 
produced  for  ceremonial  use.  Usually  they  were  crudely  made,  and  some- 
times they  were  cast  instead  of  forged.  In  this  specimen,  the  eye  is  oval.  The 
bowl  is  tall  and  urn  shaped  with  double  moldings  at  top  and  bottom.  There 
are  a  few  incised  X's  on  the  sides.  None  of  the  moldings  is  sharply  defined. 
The  haft  has  a  piece  of  buckskin  tacked  to  the  top  near  the  head  and  is 
encircled  with  a  pewter  band.  The  band  is  stamped  with  floral  designs.  The 
tacks  are  brass.  Suspended  from  two  rawhide  thongs  are  beads,  a  thimble,  a 
brass  tinkler,  and  fringe  of  red  cloth  and  rawhide.  Attributed  to  the  Ute. 
H:  8^''  W:  2^''  L:  2oi''  mai/hf:  20/2922 

178.  Pipe  tomahawk,  late  19th  century.  Another  of  the  long  slender  type, 
even  more  crudely  finished.  In  this  specimen,  attributed  to  the  Arapaho, 
the  edge  has  not  been  beveled  and  remains  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  thick. 
The  haft  which  is  quite  recent,  is  decorated  with  a  few  brass  tacks  and 
grooves  filled  with  red  paint. 

H:  8i"  W:  2^'  L:  15 J''  mai/hf:  20/2926 

179.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1850-1870).  The  most  interesting  feature  of  this 
specimen  is  the  stamped  decoration  on  the  blade  in  which  conventional 
floral  patterns  have  been  developed  using  sunburst,  triangular,  and  cres- 
centic  stamps.  The  bowl  is  exceptionally  tall  with  a  slight  outward  flare.  It 
is  completely  devoid  of  moldings  but  does  have  two  scratchwork  bands 
engraved  upon  it.  The  eye  is  a  teardrop.  The  haft  is  quite  recent  and  is 
studded  with  brass  tacks;  it  is  not  pierced  for  smoking.  From  the  Sioux. 

H:  6^"  W:  3"  L:  20^"  mai/hf:  12/4429 


I 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES  II7 

180.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 850-1 870).  This  Chippewa  specimen  may  well 
have  been  made  by  the  same  hand  as  the  previous  one.  There  is  a  general 
similarity  in  the  shape  of  the  blade,  and  the  decorations  were  created  with 
the  same  set  of  stamps,  although  the  individual  punches  are  arranged 
somewhat  differently.  In  this  instance  also,  there  is  a  hole  drilled  through 
the  blade.  The  bowl  on  this  specimen  is  more  fully  developed,  with  a  slight 
barrel  form  and  moldings  at  top  and  bottom.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  haft  ap- 
pears to  be  later,  and  is  studded  with  brass  tacks  in  four  bands  and  in 
smaller  groups.  Most  interesting  are  what  appear  to  be  cast  iron  fishhooks 
set  into  the  wood  as  part  of  the  ornamentation. 

H:  6i"  W:  2f"  L:  2if"  mai/hf:  16/9271 

181.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1850-1880).  Another  of  the  long  attenuated  type 
related  to  numbers  177  and  178,  but  much  better  made.  The  eye  is  teardrop. 
The  bowl  is  small  but  well  developed  with  moldings  at  top  and  bottom,  and 
there  are  ears  along  the  haft  at  the  eye.  The  haft  itself  is  short  and  plain 
except  for  a  bone  mouthpiece.  Said  to  have  been  of  Iroquois  ownership. 
H:  6^"  W:  2"  L:  iif"  mai/hf:  12/101 

182.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  Another  of  the  type  with  low,  thick 
bowl.  In  this  instance  the  bowl  has  both  top  and  bottom  moldings,  the 
lower  one  cabled.  The  eye  is  oval,  and  the  blade  is  plain.  The  haft  is  recent 
and  is  decorated  with  wrappings  of  copper  wire  and  one  group  of  brass  tacks. 
A  Blackfoot  specimen,  collected  in  Montana. 

H:  6|''  W:  3"  L:  23^''  mai/hf:  5/6792 

183.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1860-1880).  In  this  specimen  the  pipe  bowl  is 
most  unusually  formed  with  a  tall,  thick  neck  that  has  been  faceted  by 
filing.  The  eye  is  round,  and  on  the  outside  of  the  straps  forming  the  eye 
roughly  parallel  grooves  have  been  filed  for  decoration.  The  blade  itself  is 
thin,  unsharpened,  and  useless  as  a  weapon.  It  has  been  pierced  with  a 
"bleeding  heart."  The  haft  has  inlaid  pewter  bands  and  diamonds,  mouth- 
piece, and  fore-end  cap.  One  section  is  wrapped  with  brass  wire  and  a  strip 
of  fur,  and  twelve  brass  bells  are  suspended  from  a  rawhide  thong.  Collected 
from  the  Sauk  and  Fox. 

H:  8|''  W:  2^''  L:  2o|''  mai/hf:  2/6537 

184.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 890).  A  most  unusual  feature  of  this  axe 
is  the  long  rod  welded  to  the  rear  of  the  blade.  There  is  no  apparent  purpose 
for  this  feature,  although  it  may  have  held  some  decorative  device  at  one 
time,  since  it  is  threaded  at  its  free  end.  The  tall  octagonal  pipe  bowl  also 
is  threaded  and  unscrews.  The  blade  is  blunt  and  was  never  beveled  for  an 
edge.  It  bears  a  triangular  brass  inlay  near  the  edge.  The  haft  is  file  branded 
for  most  of  its  length.  Attributed  to  the  Sisseton  Sioux. 

H:  6^''  W:  2^'  L:  20^''  mai/hf:  3/6823 

185.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1860-1880).  Although  the  bowls  of  most  pipe 
tomahawks  of  the  second  half  of  the  19th  century  were  tall  and  slender, 
there  was  a  small  group  in  which  these  were  short  and  thick.  This  specimen 
is  one  of  the  latter  category.  The  short,  thick  bowl  has  a  knurled  molding 
at  the  top  and  none  at  the  bottom.  The  eye  is  round  and  the  blade  is  thin 
with  no  molding  at  its  base.  It  is  engraved  on  the  obverse  side  with  a 
stylized  tree  and  on  the  reverse  with  a  five-pointed  star.  The  haft,  which  is 


Il8  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

more  recent,  is  of  highly  poHshed  hght-colored  wood  with  a  lead  fore-end 

cap  and  mouthpiece.  Collected  from  the  Shawnee. 

H:  6^"  W:  2J''  L:  13I"  mai/hf:  10/2888 

186.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1850-1870).  In  this  remarkable  specimen  the 
form  tomahawk  most  popular  from  i860  to  1880  is  almost  completely  de- 
veloped. The  tall  bowl,  almost  imperceptibly  barrel  shaped,  with  a  simple 
molding  at  top  and  bottom,  the  high  median  ridge  opposite  the  center  of 
the  eye,  and  the  thin  blade  flaring  symmetrically  with  straight  sides  all  are 
characteristic  of  the  type.  In  this  instance  the  bowl  moldings  have  been 
filed  octagonal,  and  the  eye  itself  is  still  a  pointed  ellipse  rather  than  a 
true  diamond.  The  blade  has  been  sharpened,  which  is  not  usual;  and  in  this 
instance  a  considerable  portion  of  the  blade  has  been  ground  away  through 
repeated  sharpenings,  perhaps  as  much  as  an  inch  and  a  half.  It  is  engraved 
with  scratchwork  borders  and  a  circle.  The  haft  is  most  unusual  with  the 
protuberances  on  top  and  the  branch  below.  There  are  brass  tacks  on  the 
top  of  each  of  the  protuberances  and  in  an  X  pattern  just  behind  the  head. 
The  bands  and  diamond  inlays  are  silver  and  are  engraved  with  scratch- 
work  decoration;  some  of  these  are  replacements.  The  fore-end  cap  is 
pewter;  the  mouthpiece  is  lead.  Collected  from  the  Kickapoo  in  Coahuila, 
Mexico,  it  was  probably  taken  with  them  when  they  fled  south  in  1852  or 
in  1863.  See  No.  152. 

H:  8''  W:  2I"  L:  19''  mai/hf:  2/6862 

187.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  This  is  the  large  classical  so-called 
Plains  Indian  tomahawk  in  its  simplest  basic  form.  It  belonged  to  the 
Hunkpapa  Sioux  chief.  Big  Foot,  who  was  killed  in  the  Wounded  Knee 
Massacre,  December  29,  1890.  Later  examples  illustrate  various  embellish- 
ments and  variations.  The  eye  is  diamond  shaped,  and  there  is  a  sharp 
median  ridge  on  the  outside,  opposite  the  lateral  points  of  the  diamond. 
The  bowl  is  tall,  slightly  barrel  shaped,  with  simple  top  and  bottom  mold- 
ings. Its  pointed  base  moldings  extend  to  the  median  ridge.  There  are  filed 
moldings  at  the  juncture  of  the  blade  and  eye,  and  there  is  a  small  projection 
to  the  rear  at  the  base  of  the  blade.  The  blade  itself  is  thin  and  flares  in 
straight  lines  both  front  and  back  so  that  it  is  almost  symmetrical.  The  haft 
is  file  branded. 

H:  9F  W:  4I''  L:  24^''  mai/hf:  22/7225 

188.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1860-1880).  Here  the  classical  features  of  the 
Plains  Indian  type  have  been  embellished  with  stamping,  engraving,  and 
inlay.  The  tall  bowl  has  double  moldings  at  top  and  bottom  instead  of  the 
more  usual  single  bands.  The  exterior  of  the  eye  has  the  median  ridge,  but 
internally  the  eye  itself  is  a  teardrop  instead  of  the  more  usual  diamond. 
Two  deep  file  lines  follow  the  outline  of  the  base  molding  of  the  bowl  as  it 
extends  to  the  ridge  of  the  eye.  Other  borders  throughout  the  piece  are  com- 
posed of  stamped  circles  and  crescents.  The  center  of  the  blade  bears  a 
conventionalized  flower  inlaid  in  brass  on  the  reverse  side,  and  the  same 
design  is  engraved  on  the  obverse.  Above  it  is  a  cartouche  formed  by  the 
stamped  circles  and  crescents  and  shaded  with  scratchwork  engraving.  On 
the  lower  half  of  the  eye  area  below  the  ridge  is  a  trefoil  in  scratchwork. 
The  haft  is  rough  with  the  whittling  marks  visible.  It  has  been  file  branded, 
and  the  lower  edge  near  the  head  has  been  carved  in  a  series  of  serrations. 
Attributed  to  the  Oto. 

H:  8J''  W:  3I''  L:  21^''  mai/hf:  20/7859 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES  II9 

189.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 860-1 880).  In  this  specimen  several  variants 
of  the  standard  form  have  been  introduced.  The  bowl  is  heavier,  faceted, 
and  stamped  with  a  sunburst  decoration  in  the  center  of  each  facet.  There 
is  no  true  base  molding  for  the  bowl,  and  this  has  been  simulated  by  filed 
lines  on  the  strap  forming  the  eye.  The  blade  has  a  straight  forward  line 
and  flares  only  to  the  rear,  thus  making  it  narrower  than  most,  and  it  is 
pierced  with  a  single  circular  hole.  The  haft  is  wrapped  with  brass  wire  for 
two-thirds  of  its  length,  and  there  is  a  buckskin  sleeve  at  the  mouth  end 
with  narrow  beaded  bands  and  a  fringe.  A  pewter  fore-end  plate  is  held  in 
place  with  brass  tacks.  Collected  in  Oklahoma  from  the  Comanche. 

H:  8^"  W:  2|"  L:  ig^"  mai/hf:  2/4423 

190.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 860-1 880).  This  specimen  is  typical  in  all 
respects,  except  that  the  blade  is  narrower  than  the  average.  Crude  filed  X's 
have  been  placed  below  the  ridge  of  the  eye,  and  there  is  a  series  of  short 
vertical  lines  engraved  across  the  base  of  the  blade.  The  haft  is  quite  recent. 
Attributed  to  the  Comanche. 

H:  8|''  W:  3''  L:  22"  mai/hf:  20/2021 

191.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 860-1 880).  In  this  specimen  the  basic  Plains 
Indian  form  has  been  embellished  by  piercing.  The  eye  is  oval  rather  than 
diamond,  and  the  base  moldings  of  the  blade  have  been  forged  rather  than 
lightly  filed.  The  haft  has  a  buckskin  sleeve  near  the  mouthpiece  decorated 
with  quill  work,  a  flap,  and  long  fringe.  Attributed  to  the  Sioux. 

H:  9|"  W:  4^"  L:  23 J"  mai/hf:  20/1261 

192.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 860-1 880).  This  specimen  also  is  narrower  than 
the  classic  form  of  No.  187,  It  is  also  pierced  with  a  heart  and  bears  inter- 
esting scratched  engraving  depicting  two  Indians  on  each  side.  The  haft  is 
wrapped  for  most  of  its  length  with  brass  wire.  At  the  mouth  end  a  buckskin 
thong  passes  through  a  hole  and  attaches  a  small  beaded  flap  with  a  braided 
scalp  of  light-colored  hair.  Collected  from  the  Blackfoot. 

H:  8|"  W:  2f"  L:  i6|"  mai/hf:  20/9657 

193.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1860-1880).  A  large  typical  specimen  of  the 
Plains  type  embellished  with  a  pierced  heart,  the  point  slightly  bent.  The 
haft  is  studded  with  brass  tacks  in  double  bands  and  cross  patterns.  It 
has  also  been  file  branded.  A  long  strip  of  fox  fur  and  some  remnants 
of  red  cloth  are  suspended  from  a  hole  at  the  mouth  end.  Apparently 
there  was  a  separate  mouthpiece,  which  is  now  missing.  From  the  Crow 
in  Montana. 

H:  9Y'  W:  3f"  L:  20"  mai/hf:  10/3157 

194.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 860-1 880).  A  very  crude  specimen  of  the  Plains 
type  with  an  oval  eye.  The  pipe  bowl  has  no  neck  and  has  been  bent  slightly 
backward.  The  blade  has  been  pierced  with  a  cross,  each  end  of  which 
terminates  in  a  circle.  The  haft  is  file  branded  and  studded  with  brass  tacks 
in  bands.  The  lower  edge  near  the  head  has  been  carved  in  a  series  of  ser- 
rations. The  mouthpiece  is  made  from  a  .38  caliber  cartridge  case.  At- 
tributed to  the  Oglala  Sioux. 

H:  9V'  W:  3^''  L:  23^''  mai/hf:  13/7843 


120  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

195.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1860-1880).  A  large,  very  well-forged  example 
of  the  Plains  type  with  a  heart  piercing  in  the  blade.  The  haft  is  file  branded 
and  studded  with  brass  tacks  principally  in  bands.  From  the  Oglala  Sioux. 
H:  9^'  W:  3f"  L:  2o|"  mai/hf:  20/4899 

196.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1860-1880).  A  well-forged  specimen  of  classical 
Plains  type  with  a  pierced  heart  design  in  the  blade.  The  haft  has  been 
carved  in  an  unusual  fashion  with  flats  along  the  sides  for  the  forward  two- 
thirds  of  its  length.  Then  a  series  of  three  notches,  almost  dovetailed  in 
form,  have  been  fashioned,  perhaps  for  finger  grips.  There  are  a  few  brass 
tacks,  and  the  mouthpiece  is  made  from  a  copper  cartridge  case  originally 
of  .44  or  .45  caliber.  It  was  collected  from  the  Santee  Sioux. 

H:  7f  W:  3^''  L:  19^''  mai/hf:  20/2829 

197.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  An  extremely  large  example  of  the 
Plains  type.  The  head  is  in  the  classical  form  in  all  respects.  The  haft  ap- 
pears more  recent  and  is  unadorned  except  for  a  quantity  of  brass  tacks.  At- 
tributed to  the  Shoshoni. 

H:  10''  W:  4J"  L:  23"  mai/hf:  12/3200 

198.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  A  slightly  atypical  form  in  that 
the  blade  does  not  flare  symmetrically,  and  the  edge  is  at  an  angle  to  the 
haft  instead  of  roughly  parallel  to  it.  It  is  also  embellished  with  scratchwork 
decoration  comprising  crossed  arrows  on  the  eye  area  below  the  ridge  on 
both  sides,  a  conventionalized  flower  on  the  reverse  of  the  blade,  and  a 
bird's  head  on  the  obverse.  The  haft  appears  to  have  been  branded  with  a 
sharp-toothed  rasp.  The  mouthpiece  is  a  separate  piece  of  wood.  Attributed 
to  the  Blackfoot. 

H:  8''  W:  3I''  L:  22"  mai/hf:  22/4846 

199.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  A  large  crude  version  of  the  Plains 
type,  inlaid  on  the  obverse  side  of  the  blade  with  a  silver  cross  and  a  copper 
crescent.  The  eye  is  round,  and  the  outer  surfaces  of  it  are  not  well  formed. 
There  is  no  median  ridge,  and  the  moldings  on  the  bowl  are  barely  in- 
dicated. The  haft  is  rough  and  apparently  branded  with  a  rasp.  Attributed 
to  the  Santee  Sioux. 

H:  9j"  W:  3^''  L:  20"  mai/hf:  21/1295 

200.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1890-1910).  Generally  in  the  traditional  Plains 
Indian  form,  this  specimen  is  machine  made  and  modern  in  appearance.  The 
eye  is  oval,  though  there  is  a  ridge  on  the  outside.  This  portion  still  bears 
traces  of  red  paint  as  does  the  base  of  the  bowl.  The  haft  bears  a  zig-zag 
groove,  painted  red,  running  for  most  of  its  length.  Rawhide  thongs  are 
wrapped  around  just  before  and  behind  the  head  and  just  before  the 
mouthpiece.  A  string  of  miscellaneous  beads  is  also  wrapped  around  the 
haft  just  behind  the  head.  Attributed  to  the  Arapaho. 

H:  7|''  W:  sY'  L:  i8i"  mai/hf:  20/7623 

201.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  A  very  large,  but  typical,  specimen 
of  the  Plains  type,  closely  resembling  numbers  187  and  197.  Slight  differ- 
ences include  a  triple  molding  at  the  top  of  the  bowl  and  a  base  molding 
that  stops  short  of  the  ridge  in  the  center  of  the  eye.  The  haft  is  plain  except 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES  121 

for  a  buckskin  thong  from  which  suspends  a  circle  of  red  cloth  decorated 
with  bead  work  and  trailing  three  tufts  of  hair  in  simulation  of  a  scalp. 
Attributed  to  the  Sioux. 
H:  gl"  W:  s^'  L:  23!"  mai/hf:  2/9679 

202.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 870-1 890).  A  huge  tomahawk  which  shows 
some  of  the  influence  of  the  typical  Plains  Indian  style,  but  varies  greatly 
from  it.  It  is  beautifully  forged  and  finished.  The  bowl  is  short  and  thick  by 
Plains  standards  and  is  inlaid  with  two  brass  bands.  There  is  almost  no 
neck.  At  the  base  of  the  blade  are  three  circular  inlays  of  brass  on  each  side. 
The  blade  itself  is  narrow  and  pierced  with  a  circular  hole  that  has  bevelled 
edges.  A  more  unusual  feature  is  a  beveled  edge  along  the  back  of  the 
blade.  The  haft  has  been  burned  in  an  all-over  pattern  of  a  leaf  design,  and 
a  small  section  near  the  mouth  end  has  been  wrapped  with  copper  wire  as 
has  a  very  short  section  just  in  front  of  the  head.  Another  interesting 
fact  is  the  presence  of  a  protuberance  with  a  hole  drilled  through  it  on  the 
upper  edge  of  the  haft  just  behind  the  head.  Usually  these  features  are  on 
the  bottom  of  the  haft,  and  this  raises  the  question  of  whether  the  haft 
might  have  been  inserted  upside  down  at  some  point  in  its  career.  It  could 
not  have  been  recent,  however,  to  judge  by  the  wire  wrapping  in  front  of  the 
head,  and  it  may  just  possibly  always  have  been  this  way.  From  this  hole 
are  suspended  a  string  of  beads  and  a  scalp  with  some  more  beadwork 
around  the  fastening.  This  interesting  specimen  belonged  to  Chief  Little 
Wolf  of  the  Northern  Cheyennes,  a  leader  in  the  Sioux  War  of  1876. 

H:  II''  W:  3^  L:  24^"  mai/hf:  3/5353 

203.  Pipe  tomahawk  dated  1895.  A  most  unusual  specimen  that  may  pos- 
sibly be  fraternal,  rather  than  actually  meant  for  Indian  use.  The  bowl  is 
without  moldings  and  sits  on  a  long  neck  slanted  back.  It  is  inlaid  in  brass 
"F  F  &  C  /  1895"  ill  "two  lines.  The  eye  is  oval,  and  on  either  side  is  inlaid 
a  crude  drawing  of  an  Indian's  head.  The  blade  is  inlaid  on  the  obverse  with 
an  American  eagle,  stars,  and  the  word  "TOTE"  as  if  this  decoration  had 
been  inspired  by  one  of  the  early  axes  such  as  No.  124.  The  reverse  side  has 
a  design  of  arms  consisting  of  a  hatchet,  pipe,  knife  and  club  in  brass  inlay. 
The  haft  is  completely  plain.  Provenience  unknown. 

H:  8"  W:  3J"  L:  21"  mai/hf:  22/7210 

204.  Recent  pipe  tomahawk.  This  specimen  was  undoubtedly  made  after 
1900  and  may  well  have  been  designed  for  fraternal  use.  It  is  cast  iron  with 
a  simple  stovepipe  bowl  and  a  round  eye.  It  is  decorated  in  relief  on  the 
obverse  side  with  an  arrow,  its  head  on  the  pipe  bowl  and  its  shaft  running 
down  the  bowl,  over  the  eye  and  terminating  in  the  feathers  on  the  base  of 
the  blade.  On  the  blade  itself  is  an  Indian  head.  On  the  reverse  side  are  a 
bear  and  a  snake.  The  haft  is  carved  along  its  upper  edge  with  a  turtle  and 
an  Indian  head,  and  there  are  various  notches.  There  is  also  some  evidence 
of  charring,  perhaps  in  an  attempt  to  simulate  age.  Collected  in  Nebraska. 
H:  7f  W:  2I"  L:  19I''  mai/hf:  22/7233 

205.  Recent  pipe  tomahawk.  Another  cast  iron  specimen  probably  made 
after  1900.  The  eye  is  round,  and  the  workmanship  is  crude.  The  haft  is 
simple  with  an  arrow  incised  on  the  obverse  side  and  a  sun  on  top.  There 
are  traces  of  green  paint  and  of  some  charring.  Attributed  to  the  Seneca. 
H:  7^"  W:  2y  L:  16^''  mai/hf:  22/7276 


122  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

206.  Recent  pipe  tomahawk.  An  excessively  crude  wrought-iron  specimen 
undoubtedly  made  after  1900.  The  eye  is  teardrop  and  tapers  towards  the 
front  instead  of  to  the  rear,  as  in  almost  all  bonafide  specimens.  The  haft  is 
carved  with  a  large  turtle  which  has  been  painted  a  dull  red.  The  remainder 
of  the  haft  is  painted  black.  An  interesting  addition  is  an  antler  plug  in  the 
fore  end.  Provenience  unknown. 

H:  7I"  W:  2|-"  L:  2if"  mai/hf:  22/7300 

207.  Pipe  tomahawk  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  A  classical  example  of  the  so-called 
Plains  Indian  tomahawk  in  its  simplest  form,  this  specimen  belonged  to  the 
Bannock  chieftain  Little  Taighe  from  whom  it  was  purchased  in  1885.  The 
eye  is  diamond  shaped  and  there  is  a  sharp  median  ridge  on  the  outside.  The 
bowl  is  tall  and  slightly  barrel  shaped  with  simple  moldings  at  the  top  and 
bottom.  Its  pointed  base  moldings  extend  almost  to  the  median  ridge. 
There  are  filed  moldings  at  the  juncture  of  the  blade  and  eye,  and  there  is 
a  small  projection  to  the  rear  at  the  base  of  the  blade.  The  haft  is  decorated 
with  file  branding  and  two  double  rings  of  brass-headed  tacks.  There  is  a 
separate  mouthpiece  of  bone. 

H:  8f"  W:  3f"  L:  2of"  mai/hf:  22/7300 

208.  Pipe  tomahawk  said  to  have  belonged  to  Little  Turtle,  the  famous 
Miami  chieftain  (1752-1812).  The  bowl  is  tall,  but  heavy,  with  a  thick  neck. 
It  is  slightly  barrel  shaped,  with  moldings  at  top  and  bottom.  The  eye  is  a 
rough  oval,  almost  rectangular,  with  rounded  corners,  and  the  relatively 
narrow  blade  is  straight  sided  with  a  gradual  flair  to  the  rear.  The  haft  is 
cigar  shaped  with  a  protuberance  on  the  lower  edge  near  the  mouthpiece. 
Decorations  consist  of  silver  and  pewter  inlays.  There  is  a  pewter  fore-end 
cap  and  a  pewter  mouthpiece,  both  cast  in  place.  Style  and  construction 
details  seem  to  indicate  a  date  in  the  1 820-1 840  period,  since  both  the  the 
bowl  and  the  blade  are  early  versions  of  the  so-called  "Plains  Indian"  form, 
which  became  popular  after  1850. 

H:  61"  W:  2"  L:  17I"  mai/hf:  22/7207 


2.  Brass  Heads  with  Steel  Edges 

209.  Pipe  tomahawk  with  date  1760.  If  the  date  engraved  on  this  specimen 
indicates  the  year  of  manufacture,  as  it  well  may,  this  is  the  earliest  known 
brass  tomahawk  with  an  inset  steel  edge.  The  bowl  is  taller  than  normal  for 
this  era  and  slopes  slightly  backward.  Much  of  this  height,  however,  is 
caused  by  the  long  neck.  Otherwise  the  faceted  bowl,  tapering  in  to  the 
moldings  at  the  top,  is  in  keeping  with  the  style  of  the  period.  The  eye  is 
teardrop.  The  blade  has  the  rearward  flare  in  a  concave  line  that  one  would, 
expect,  but  in  this  instance  both  front  and  back  lines  have  been  broken  by 
decorative  filing  and  curving  lines.  There  is  also  a  bevel  simulating  an  edge 
on  both  the  front  and  back  for  a  distance  of  approximately  one-third  of  the 
blade's  height.  The  steel  edge  is  not  dovetailed  but  apparently  is  fitted  into 
a  groove  in  the  brass  and  soldered.  The  reverse  side  of  the  blade  is  engraved 
with  a  set  of  scales.  The  date  1760  appears  just  below  the  bowl.  The  haft 
has  a  raised  carving  of  a  fleur-de-lys  adjacent  to  the  head  on  its  lower  edge. 
There  are  two  pewter  bands,  and  the  mouthpiece  is  pewter.  It  was  collected 
from  an  elderly  Mohawk. 
H:  5f''  W:  2''  L:  17^''  mai/hf:  3/4812 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES  I23 

210.  Pipe  tomahawk,  late  i8th  century.  This  is  one  of  the  commonest 
forms  of  brass  tomahawk  with  dovetailed  steel  edge.  The  shallow  rounded 
bowl  has  a  conventionalized  holly  wreath  engraved  around  it.  There  are 
raised  horizontal  moldings  across  the  eye  just  below  the  neck,  an  engraved 
border,  and  conventionalized  floral  motif  in  the  center  of  the  eye.  The  border 
continues  along  the  front  and  back  of  the  blade,  and  down  the  center  is 
engraved  a  single  floral  spray.  Minor  details  vary,  but  this  general  pattern 
of  decoration  is  found  on  almost  all  pipes  of  this  form.  The  eye  is  round.  The 
haft  is  completely  modern  and,  although  of  fine  workmanship,  does  not 
resemble  any  known  pattern  of  the  period.  This  specimen  was  collected 
among  the  Chippewa. 

H:  7I"  W:  2f  L:  17^'  mai/hf:  22/7212 

211.  Pipe  tomahawk,  late  i8th  century.  Of  the  same  general  pattern  as 
the  preceding,  this  specimen  has  differences  in  decorative  detail,  and  one 
structural  difference.  The  engraving  is  slightly  cruder.  There  is  no  wreath 
around  the  bowl,  but  a  border  of  chevrons  just  above  the  bottom  molding. 
These  same  chevrons  compose  a  border  in  a  rectangle  on  the  eye  area 
formed  by  the  bottom  line  of  the  base  molding  of  the  bowl  and  the  top  line 
of  the  molding  at  the  junction  of  the  blade  and  eye.  There  are  wavy  line 
borders  along  the  front  and  back  of  the  blade  and  chevrons  across  the  top. 
In  the  center  is  a  floral  pattern  consisting  of  a  center  and  five  petals.  The 
structural  difference  consists  of  eight  brass  rivets  which  pass  through  the 
blade  just  above  the  steel  edge.  The  eye  is  teardrop.  The  haft  appears  to  be 
old,  but  is  not  original.  It  is  cut  down  to  enter  the  eye  and  also  lacks  the 
thin  leather  gasket  that  should  seal  the  joint  between  the  haft  and  the  head 
in  a  pipe  of  this  period.  Provenience  unknown. 

H:  7^"  W:  2|"  L:  20J"  Author's  collection 

212.  Pipe  tomahawk,  late  i8th  or  early  19th  century.  Although  this  axe 
is  more  crudely  made,  its  relationship  to  the  two  preceding  specimens  can 
easily  be  seen,  especially  in  the  shape  of  the  bowl.  The  eye  area  is  not 
delineated,  but  slopes  from  a  relatively  broad  poll  in  an  almost  uniform 
taper  to  the  edge.  The  eye  itself  is  a  modified  teardrop.  The  steel  edge  is 
quite  narrow  and  is  attached  to  the  brass  head  by  three  rivets.  Provenience 
unknown. 

H:  7''  W:  if''  William  O.  Sweet  collection 

213.  Pipe  tomahawk  marked  J.  Welshhans,  {ca.  1 810-1820).  A  simple 
but  exceptionally  well-made  specimen  with  a  small  round  eye.  The  bowl  is 
threaded  and  unscrews.  The  edge  is  dovetailed  into  the  head.  An  interesting 
feature  is  the  loop  which  projects  from  the  back  of  the  blade.  It  quite  pos- 
sibly may  have  been  intended  for  one  of  the  ceremonial  chains  of  friendship. 
The  haft  is  curly  maple.  This  specimen  was  found  in  an  attic  in  York, 
Pennsylvania. 

H:  7"  W:  2f  L:  i^\"  William  Guthman  collection 

214.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 815-1825).  Another  of  the  specimens  with  a 
small  round  eye,  this  one  is  only  five-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  In  view 
of  the  weakness  inherent  in  any  haft  passing  through  so  small  an  eye,  the 
piece  must  have  been  entirely  ceremonial.  Thus  the  addition  of  a  functional 
steel  edge  is  most  puzzling.  Except  for  moldings  on  the  bowl  and  neck,  the 
piece  is  completely  plain.  Provenience  unknown. 

H:  jV  W:  2.1"  Author's  collection 


124  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

215.  Pipe  tomahawk  with  removable  hammer  head,  {ca.  1 820-1 850).  This 
is  a  unique  specimen  in  several  ways.  The  inside  of  the  pipe  bowl  is  threaded 
to  receive  an  iron  insert  which  converts  it  to  a  hammer  poll.  A  few  other 
instances  are  known  in  which  a  spike  can  be  substituted  for  the  bowl,  but 
in  these  specimens  the  entire  bowl  is  removed  and  the  spike  attached  in  its 
place;  also,  these  have  been  specimens  with  iron  or  steel  heads.  Another 
unique  feature  of  this  axe  is  the  complicated  design  of  the  inset  steel  edge, 
with  an  urn  motif  and  two  small  dovetails.  There  is  a  finely  engraved  wreath 
around  the  center  of  the  bowl.  The  eye  is  oval  and  there  is  a  very  thin 
leather  gasket.  The  haft  is  painted  vermilion.  The  mouthpiece  is  horn, 
fastened  with  brass  pins,  and  the  plug  at  the  front  end  is  also  horn.  Prov- 
enience unknown. 

H:  8"  W:  2f''  L:  20^''  Robert  Abels  collection 

216.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1860-1880).  A  late  specimen  with  a  very  tall 
straight-sided  bowl  much  resembling  the  cup  of  a  candlestick.  The  blade  is 
pierced  with  two  circles  and  an  inverted  heart.  The  steel  edge,  very  narrow 
and  cusped  in  the  center,  appears  to  be  secured  only  with  silver  solder.  The 
eye  is  round;  the  haft  completely  plain.  Collected  among  the  Cheyenne. 
H:  y-f  W:  3f"  L:  igf"  Smithsonian  Institution 

usnm:  178877 

217.  An  unusually  elaborate  and  heavy  pipe  tomahawk  of  excellent 
workmanship,  late  19th  century.  The  casting  of  the  brass  portion  of  the 
head,  deeply  grooved  with  geometrical  patterns,  suggests  some  of  the  wall 
decorations  of  the  late  Victorian  era.  The  steel  edge  is  heavy  and  comes  up 
almost  to  the  eye  where  it  is  inserted  in  a  socket  in  the  brass.  The  eye  is 
oval.  The  haft  appears  to  be  walnut,  and  has  a  small,  carefully  worked 
mouthpiece.  A  buckskin  thong  is  tied  to  a  groove  at  the  butt.  According  to 
its  records,  the  Museum  obtained  this  specimen  in  1913  from  a  retired 
Birmingham,  England  gun  worker,  then  84  years  old.  He  said  his  father 
used  to  go  to  America  to  get  orders  for  flintlock  guns  between  1813  and 
1833  and,  on  one  occasion,  was  given  this  tomahawk  by  a  Blackfoot  chief. 
H:  9f"  W:  4''  L:  22^"  mai/hf:  3/2906 

218.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1860-1890).  A  late  but  well-made  and  mod- 
erately functional  specimen.  The  steel  edge  is  long  and  fits  into  a  groove  in 
the  brass  just  below  the  eye  where  it  is  silver  soldered  in  place.  There  is  a 
pewter  band  just  behind  the  head  with  a  serrated  edge.  A  similar  one  just 
in  front  of  the  carved  mouthpiece  is  now  missing.  The  haft  itself  is  curved 
in  a  manner  reminiscent  of  the  felling  axe  of  the  same  era.  This  was  ob- 
tained in  Idaho  from  the  Nez  Perce. 

H:  7''  W:  3 J"  L:  22f  mai/hf:  20/4922 

219.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1900-1910).  This  specimen  qualifies  for  inclu- 
sion in  the  brass  and  steel  group  only  because  its  bowl  is  brass.  This  feature 
is  screwed  into  a  wrought  iron  strap  which  forms  the  eye.  A  thin  steel  blade 
is  sandwiched  between  the  ends  of  this  strap.  The  eye  itself  is  teardrop. 
The  haft  is  flattened  along  the  sides  for  about  two-thirds  of  its  length  and 
has  a  series  of  vertical  lines  scratched  into  its  surface.  Attributed  to  the 
Osage. 

H:  7|"  W:  4^"  L:  17^"  mai/hf:  20/4927 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES  I25 

3.  All-Brass  Heads 

220.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 850-1 880).  An  early  version  of  the  Plains  type 
with  a  straight-fronted  blade.  The  eye  is  teardrop.  The  bowl  is  tall  and 
straight  sided  with  milled  moldings  top  and  bottom.  The  blade  is  pierced 
with  three  circular  holes.  The  haft  is  straight  and  plain  except  for  a  few 
brass  tacks  and  a  rawhide  thong.  This  axe  was  obtained  from  Chief  Joseph 
of  the  Nez  Perce  when  he  was  at  Fort  Leavenworth  in  1877. 

H:  8^"  W:  3I"  L:  i8|"  mai/hf:  22/7235 

221.  Pipe  tomahawk  from  the  battlefield  of  Fallen  Timbers,  Ohio,  1794. 
The  eye  is  round.  The  bowl  is  short  with  a  central  molding,  and  the  general 
casting  is  crude.  The  only  decoration  consists  of  the  moldings  and  incised 
chevrons  which  were  part  of  the  original  pattern.  An  identical  specimen, 
now  in  the  Stark  County  Museum,  at  Springfield,  Ohio,  was  found  on  the 
site  of  the  Greenville  Treaty  of  1795. 

H:  7 J''  W:  3^''  LaDow  Johnston  collection 

222.  Pipe  tomahawk,  late  19th  century.  The  head  is  cast  from  a  well-made 
pattern  but  roughly  finished  with  the  file  marks  still  visible,  especially  on 
the  blade.  The  eye  is  round.  The  bowl  is  exceptionally  tall  with  a  series  of 
turnings  and  moldings.  The  area  of  the  eye  is  faceted  instead  of  rounded, 
and  there  are  double  file  lines  simulating  the  usual  base  molding  for  the 
bowl.  The  long  narrow  blade  is  pierced  with  a  heart.  The  haft  is  file  branded 
and  studded  with  brass  tacks.  A  flap  of  red  cloth  with  characteristic 
Blackfoot  beaded  decoration  and  buckskin  fringe  is  tied  just  in  front  of  the 
mouthpiece. 

H:  9^''  W:  2f"  L:  2i\"  mai/hf:  2/4424 

223.  Pipe  tomahawk,  late  19th  century.  A  simpler  specimen  than  the 
preceding,  its  only  decoration  consists  of  the  paneling  around  the  eye  and 
three  knurled  bands  on  the  bowl.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  plus  in  the  fore  end 
is  red  cloth.  Collected  from  the  Kaw  in  Oklahoma. 

H:  -jI"  W:  2|"  L:  21I"  mai/hf:  2/7128 

224.  Pipe  tomahawk,  mid- 19th  century.  An  earlier  specimen  than  the  two 
preceding  ones,  this  axe  possesses  an  interestingly  faceted  bowl  with  ex- 
ceptionally thick  walls  which  sits  on  a  high  base  above  the  poll.  The  haft 
is  modern.  Collected  in  Montana  from  the  Piegan  Blackfoot. 

H:  jl"  W:  2I"  L:  14^'  mai/hf:  20/4910 

225.  Pipe  tomahawk,  late  19th  century.  Probably  made  in  France,  this 
specimen  demonstrates  considerable  craftsmanship  and  imagination,  but  it 
is  doubtful  if  it  was  actually  intended  for  an  Indian.  In  many  respects  it 
resembles  the  wall  decorations  of  the  late  Victorian  era.  The  bowl  is  huge. 
The  eye  is  drilled  through  a  solid  cube,  and  the  blade  bears  raised  floral 
decorations.  Immediately  behind  the  head  is  a  brass  band  fastened  in  place 
with  a  screw.  The  haft  is  ebony,  and  the  turned  mouthpiece  is  bone.  Tribe 
unknown. 

H:  sV  W:  4''  L:  21^"  mai/hf:  21/4485 

226.  Pipe  tomahawk,  late  19th  century.  In  some  ways  this  specimen 
resembles  those  with  narrow-waisted  blades  which  were  popular  at  mid- 


126  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

century.  The  very  tall  bowl  without  a  top  molding,  however,  immediately 
stamps  it  as  belonging  to  the  late  years  of  the  century  or  possibly  even  to  the 
opening  years  of  the  next.  It  is  roughly  cast  with  many  sand  pits.  The  edges 
have  been  nicked  with  a  file  here  and  there  for  decoration.  Follow  lines  are 
engraved  along  the  front  and  back  of  the  blade,  and  a  floral  decoration  is 
engraved  in  the  center.  The  eye  is  a  pointed  ellipse.  The  haft  is  completely 
wrapped  with  brass  wire.  There  is  a  pewter  mouthpiece,  fore-end  cap  and 
head  bands,  and  an  engraved  silver  band  near  the  mouthpiece.  Attributed 
to  the  Shawnee. 
H:  8''  W:  3"  L:  23^"  mai/hf:  20/7401 

227.  Pipe  tomahawk,  late  19th  century.  Another  of  the  very  late  bronze 
castings  with  an  extremely  tall  bowl  and  no  top  molding.  In  this  instance 
the  eye  area  is  faceted,  and  the  blade  shape  is  quite  decadent  without  even 
a  hint  of  functionalism.  The  eye  is  round.  The  fore-end  plug  is  turned  wood. 
The  haft  itself  is  file  branded  and  studded  with  brass  tacks  in  a  chevron 
pattern.  Attributed  to  the  Oglala  Sioux. 

H:  9"  W:  2f"  L:  24^''  mai/hf:  13/7845 

228.  Pipe  tomahawk,  late  19th  century.  Although  this  axe  belongs  to  the 
same  general  group  as  its  two  predecessors,  it  is  distinguished  by  a  more 
elaborately  formed  bowl  which  boasts  two  inlaid  copper  rings.  The  eye  is 
oval.  The  haft  has  a  scalloped  lower  edge  and  is  file  branded.  At  one  time 
it  apparently  had  two  inlays  in  the  form  of  pointed  ellipses.  The  mouth  end 
is  wrapped  in  strips  of  red-brown  fur,  apparently  from  a  fox.  From  the 
Menomini  in  Wisconsin. 

H:  7|"  W:  3"  L:  18I"  mai/hf:  10/2876 

229.  Pipe  tomahawk,  late  19th  century.  A  crudely-fashioned  specimen  of 
the  late  cast  brass  type  with  many  file  marks  still  visible.  The  bowl  is  once 
again  the  very  tall  form  without  top  molding.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  haft  is 
file  branded,  and  there  is  a  long  wire  pick  tied  on  with  a  piece  of  light  cord. 
Attributed  to  the  Oto  in  Oklahoma. 

H:  8''  W:  2|''  L:  15I"  mai/hf:  12/855 

230.  Pipe  tomahawk,  late  19th  century.  This  piece  may  well  be  slightly 
earlier  than  its  predecessors,  perhaps  as  early  as  1 870-1 880.  It  is  wide  and 
heavy.  The  tall  bowl  has  well-formed  top  and  bottom  moldings,  and  the 
eye  is  teardrop.  The  haft  is  carved  with  raised  figures  of  Indians,  buffalo, 
arrows,  and  geometric  patterns.  Attributed  to  the  Kainah  Blackfoot. 

H:  7|''  W:  3f''  L:  23^'  mai/hf:  20/4931 

231.  Pipe  tomahawk  by  Horstmann,  circa  1900.  In  form  this  head  general- 
ly resembles  the  narrow- waisted  types  of  the  mid- 19th  century.  The  details 
of  workmanship,  the  fact  that  it  is  cast  brass  and  nickel  plated,  and  that  it 
is  secured  to  the  haft  by  a  screw  with  its  head  on  the  reverse  side,  however, 
all  seem  to  indicate  a  considerably  later  date.  The  practice  of  nickel-plating 
brass  tomahawk  heads  does  not  seem  to  have  become  popular  until  ap- 
proximately the  turn  of  the  century.  The  name  "HORSTMANN/PHILa"  is 
stamped  in  two  lines  at  the  base  of  the  blade  just  above  the  notch  on  the 
reverse  side.  The  haft  is  a  most  unusual  shape  with  a  turned  wooden 
mouthpiece. 

H:  7f"  W:  2|''  L:  18^"  Mary  R.  duMont  collection 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES  I27 

232.  Pipe  tomahawk,  nickel-plated  brass,  circa  1900.  Very  similar  to  the 
preceding  specimen,  except  that  it  is  unmarked  and  does  not  have  the 
screw  passing  through  the  side  of  the  head  and  into  the  haft.  The  haft  also 
is  Indian  made,  rather  than  manufactured  for  the  trade.  It  is  branded  in 
bands  with  short  vertical  lines  and  X's  burned-in  between.  The  rear  half  is 
wrapped  with  a  leather  strip,  and  there  is  a  beaded  band  at  both  ends  of 
the  wrapping.  Two  small  feathers  are  tied  to  the  rearmost  band.  Attributed 
to  the  Osage. 

H:  7f"  W:  2|''  L:  i8|"  mai/hf:  20/4926 

233.  Pipe  tomahawk  of  nickel-plated  brass  by  Levi  St.  Cyr,  1908.  This 
casting  is  similar  in  many  respects  to  numbers  226  and  229  although  the 
bowl  is  a  little  shorter  and  thicker.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  blade  is  stamped  on 
both  sides  with  a  star  surrounded  by  a  double  circle.  Each  line  of  the 
stamping  is  made  up  of  a  series  of  small  arcs.  Between  the  double  lines  of  the 
circle  appears  the  name  "LEVI  ST  CYR  /  WINNEBAGO  NEBR,"  and  in 
the  center  of  the  star  is  the  date  1908.  The  haft  is  file  branded,  but  is  not 
pierced,  so  that  it  could  not  be  smoked.  Collected  from  the  Winnebago, 
Nebraska. 

H:  8"  W:  2f"  L:  22''  mai/hf:  16/2541 

234.  Pipe  tomahawk  of  nickel-plated  brass,  probably  by  Levi  St.  Cyr, 
1908.  The  head  is  identical  in  all  respects  to  the  previous  specimen,  except 
that  the  star-and-circle  mark  does  not  bear  the  name  or  date.  It  is  obviously 
from  the  same  mold,  and  the  stamp  is  the  same.  The  haft  is  file  branded  and 
decorated  with  strips  of  fur,  black  glass  beads,  yarn,  and  brass  bells.  Col- 
lected from  the  Sauk  and  Fox  tribe. 

H:  8''  W:  3''  L:  19I''  mai/hf:  2/4814 

235.  Recent  pipe  tomahawk.  The  head  is  roughly  cast  and  almost  formless 
except  for  the  bowl.  The  eye  is  oval.  A  cross-and-line  border  has  been  en- 
graved on  the  blade  and  the  corners  have  been  file  nicked  for  decoration. 
The  haft  is  studded  with  brass-plated  tacks  and  is  carved  with  incised 
drawings  of  Indians,  a  tepee,  wagon,  sun,  and  stars.  The  mouthpiece  is 
nickel-plated  brass.  Undoubtedly  a  20th  century  product.  Provenience 
unknown. 

H:  8^"  W:  3''  L:  20''  mai/hf:  22/7215 

236.  Pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1900).  A  simple  brass  casting  that  may  possibly 
date  from  the  very  last  years  of  the  19th  century  or  as  late  as  1920.  The  eye 
is  round.  The  decoration  consists  of  engraved  lines  along  the  front  and  back 
of  the  blade  and  along  the  base  molding  of  the  bowl  plus  a  few  stamped 
circles.  The  haft  is  not  original.  From  the  Sioux. 

H:  7"  W:  2|"  L:  18"  mai/hf:  22/7234 

237.  Recent  pipe  tomahawk.  The  head  is  a  simple  but  well-made  casting. 
The  eye  is  oval,  and  there  is  no  decoration.  The  haft  tapers  sharply  in  the 
reverse  of  the  usual  form;  that  is,  it  expands  towards  the  mouth  end.  The 
head  has  been  slipped  over  the  fore  end  and  slid  down  the  haft  to  insure  a 
tight  fit;  thus  about  one-fifth  of  the  haft  protrudes  beyond  the  head.  From 
this  portion  of  the  haft  dangle  brass  bells  on  rawhide  thongs,  and  strings  of 
glass,  shell,  and  horn  beads,  some  of  which  seem  to  be  prehistoric  specimens. 


128  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

The  mouthpiece  is  made  from  a  cartridge  case,  apparently  from  the  1903 

Springfield  rifle.  Attributed  to  the  Mandan. 

H:  6f''  W:  2^'  L:  16^"  mai/hf:  20/4901 

238.  Recent  pipe  tomahawk.  A  more  elaborate  casting  than  most  heads  of 
this  period,  it  may  date  from  the  closing  years  of  the  19th  century  or  as 
late  as  1910.  There  are  floral  decorations  incised  in  the  bowl  and  eye  areas 
as  part  of  the  original  casting.  The  blade  bears  miscellaneous  punched  dots 
and  is  engraved  on  the  obverse  side  with  a  bear,  and  on  the  reverse  side  with 
the  figure  of  an  Indian.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  haft  is  completely  modern. 
Provenience  unknown. 

H:  6|"  W:  2|"  L:  17^"  mai/hf:  22/7208 

239.  Recent  pipe  tomahawk.  A  simple  and  crude  casting  with  many  sand 
pits  and  no  decoration.  It  is  certainly  20th  century.  The  eye  is  oval.  The 
haft  is  studded  with  brass-headed  tacks  and  wrapped  for  the  first  third  of 
its  length  with  a  piece  of  buckskin  held  in  place  with  some  of  these  tacks. 
The  remaining  portion  of  the  haft  is  branded  with  a  series  of  crescents  and 
lines  which  form  bands  around  it.  Attributed  to  the  Winnebago. 

H:  8''  W:  3-^  L:  18''  mai/hf:  20/4915 


4.  Pewter  or  Lead  Heads 

240.  Pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  (ca.  1775-1825).  A  well-made  specimen  with 
the  shape  of  the  late  i8th  century.  The  bowl  is  short  and  of  large  diameter, 
tapering  in  slightly  at  the  top.  The  eye  is  teardrop.  Scratchwork  borders 
have  been  engraved  around  the  blade,  and  the  name  Wagaquan  is  engraved 
on  the  reverse  side.  The  long  slender  haft  is  inlaid  with  pewter  strap  work 
decoration  just  behind  the  head  and  before  the  mouthpiece,  which  is  also 
pewter.  Attributed  to  the  Chippewa. 

H:  6J"  W:  2f  L:  22^"  mai/hf:  19/6202 

241.  Very  small  pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  late  19th  century.  With  such 
small  specimens,  perhaps  children's  pieces,  it  is  very  difficult  to  be  certain 
of  a  date  since  they  do  not  necessarily  follow  the  styles  of  contemporary 
pipes  for  adults.  This  particular  specimen  might  well  date  from  the  first 
half  of  the  century  rather  than  from  the  second,  but  the  straight  sides  of  the 
bowl  and  the  manner  in  which  the  blade  springs  from  the  eye  area  seem  to 
outweigh  the  earlier  features  of  the  haft  shape  and  the  concave  flare  of  the 
rear  line  of  the  blade.  The  eye  is  round.  The  haft  is  inlaid  from  end  to  end 
with  bands  of  connected  pewter  diamonds.  There  are  three  eyelets  along  the 
lower  edge  of  the  haft,  and  from  the  first  of  these  dangle  long  rawhide 
thongs  wrapped  in  red,  yellow,  and  blue  quillwork,  red  feathers  and  horse- 
hair dyed  green.  Attributed  to  the  Blackfoot. 

H:  4|''W:  i|"L:  12^''  mai/hf:  4/2071 

242.  Crude  pipe  tomahawk  of  lead,  late  19th  century.  The  eye  is  round. 
The  blade  has  been  bent  because  of  the  softness  of  the  material,  and  there 
are  some  rough  solder  repairs.  The  form  of  the  bowl  as  well  as  the  rear  line 
of  the  blade  reinforce  the  period  attribution  which  might  also  be  made  on 
the  basis  of  workmanship.  There  are  two  lead  bands  and  a  lead  mouthpiece 
on  the  stem.  Attributed  to  the  Creek  in  Oklahoma. 

H:  4^''  W:  li"  L:  27I''  mai/hf:  10/2884 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  CONVENTIONAL  BLADES  I29 

243.  Pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1880-1900).  Another  of  the  Plains  Indian 
group,  this  time  with  unusual  inlays  in  the  blade  despite  the  fact  that  the 
head  itself  is  rather  crudely  cast.  On  the  obverse  side  are  four  copper 
horseshoes.  On  the  reverse  are  a  brass  tree  and  two  C's.  The  eye  is  oval.  The 
haft  is  studded  with  brass  tacks  and  has  been  file  branded.  At  the  butt  end 
is  a  sleeve  with  a  beaded  red  cloth  flap  backed  with  buckskin  and  a  cotton 
print.  Attributed  to  the  Cree. 

H:  9f"  W:  4''  L:  i\\"  mai/hf:  7/2419 

244.  Very  large  pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 870-1 890).  Typical  of  the  so- 
called  Plains  Indian  form,  but  with  a  slightly  later  form  of  pipe  bowl.  The 
eye  is  round.  The  blade  is  decorated  with  dots  punched  in  a  V  pattern  and 
with  five  circular  holes  arranged  in  a  square  with  one  in  the  center.  The 
haft  may  possibly  be  newer,  but  the  decorations  attached  to  the  fore  end 
are  old.  These  consist  of  beads,  feathers,  and  red  cloth.  The  haft  has  not 
been  pierced,  so  the  pipe  cannot  be  smoked.  This  was  obtained  from  the 
Saulteaux  Chippewa. 

H:  \o\"  W:  ^\"  L:  i^\"  mai/hf:  11/3501 

245.  Pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1870-1900).  Generally  typical  of  the 
Plains  Indian  pattern,  but  with  a  small  and  decadent  bowl.  There  is  no 
decoration.  The  eye  is  rectangular,  and  the  haft  is  file  branded.  Once  again, 
it  is  not  pierced  and  cannot  be  smoked.  Collected  among  the  Chippewa. 

H:  q\"  W:  3f"  L:  i^\"  mai/hf:  5/3707 

246.  Pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1880-1900).  A  late  and  crude  specimen 
collected  in  Tucson,  Arizona,  but  certainly  not  used  by  any  of  the  tribes  in 
that  immediate  vicinity.  The  eye  is  rectangular,  and  this  is  reflected  in  the 
outside  shape  as  well.  Indications  of  the  earlier  pointed  bowl  base  moldings 
have  been  filed  on  the  sides,  and  the  blade  is  pierced  with  a  heart. 

H:  7^"  W:  3^''  William  O.  Sweet  collection 

247.  Pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 880-1900) .  A  late  example  of  the  Plains 
type  in  which  the  triangular  piercing  of  the  blade  reaches  the  maximum  of 
its  development.  The  blade  itself  is  reduced  almost  to  straps.  There  is  a 
heart  inside  a  diamond  in  scratch  engraving  on  the  obverse  side  of  the  eye 
area.  The  eye  itself  is  oval.  The  haft,  which  appears  quite  recent,  is  not 
pierced.  It  is,  however,  studded  with  brass  tacks,  and  the  butt  end  is 
wrapped  with  modern  red  cloth.  Attributed  to  the  Sisseton  Sioux. 

H:  10"  W:  4I''  L:  25^''  mai/hf:  20/4906 

248.  Pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 890-1900).  The  eye  is  large  and  round. 
The  blade  is  pierced  with  a  triangle,  and  the  rear  line  of  the  blade  is  serrated. 
The  haft  is  of  the  very  short  type  sometimes  found  on  late  pipe  axes.  It  is 
not  pierced.  For  almost  two-thirds  of  its  length  it  is  covered  with  rows  of 
brass  tacks ;  then  it  disappears  into  a  beaded  buckskin  sleeve  with  a  beaded 
flap,  fringe,  and  brass  bells.  The  beaded  design  is  a  late  floral  pattern.  At- 
tributed to  the  Crow. 

H:  9r  W:  ^l"  L:  15''  mai/hf:  9/1404 

249.  Pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1870-1890).  Generally  typical  of  the 
Plains  Indian  pattern,  except  that  the  eye  is  flat  sided  instead  of  having  a 
sharp  median  ridge.  The  top  and  bottom  moldings  of  the  pipe  bowl  are 


130  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

cabled  instead  of  being  plain,  and  the  base  molding  runs  almost  to  the  base 
of  the  blade.  The  most  outstanding  characteristic  is  the  triangle  piercing  in 
the  blade  which  seems  to  be  quite  common  in  pewter  specimens  of  the  late 
19th  century.  Below  it  is  engraved  a  tree.  The  haft  has  been  burned  in  a 
spiral  strip.  There  is  a  buckskin  sleeve  at  the  mouth  with  fringe  and  a 
beaded  flap.  Attributed  to  the  Crow. 
H  :  9^''  W:  4I"  L:  19I"  mai/hf:  2/4425 

250.  Pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 870-1 890).  Generally  typical  of  the 
Plains  Indian  form,  but  with  an  octagonal  eye  and  a  simplified  bowl.  The 
blade  is  pierced  with  a  diamond.  The  haft  is  studded  with  tacks  and  file 
branded.  There  is  a  cloth  gasket  around  the  haft  inside  the  eye.  From  the 
Sioux. 

H:  8i''  W:  sf'  L:  19^''  mai/hf:  13/7844 

251.  Pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1880-1900).  Of  the  same  general  type 
as  No.  246,  but  more  crudely  made.  The  bowl  is  interesting  because  of  its 
central  band  moldings  and  taper  towards  both  ends.  The  eye  is  oval. 
Attributed  to  the  Chippewa. 

H:  81"  W:  2^"  mai/hf:  22/4847 

252.  Pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  late  19th  century.  A  well-made  specimen 
with  complicated  moldings  and  facetings  on  the  tall  straight  bowl  and  over 
the  eye.  The  eye  itself  is  teardrop,  and  there  is  a  cloth  gasket  around  the 
haft  inside  it.  The  head  sits  well  down  the  haft,  and  there  is  a  bone  plug  in 
the  fore-end  which  resembles  the  head  of  a  walking  stick.  The  mouthpiece 
is  antler.  The  haft  is  plain.  From  the  Wampanoag  in  Massachusetts. 

H:  7f''  W:  3I''  L:  30''  mai/hf:  22/7202 

253.  Pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1880-1900).  A  crude  specimen  of  the 
same  general  quality  and  type  as  numbers  246  and  251.  The  blade  is  pierced 
with  a  circular  hole.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  haft  is  diamond  shaped  in  section, 
is  serrated  along  its  lower  edge  and  carved  with  incised  chevrons  on  the 
two  upper  sides.  At  the  mouth  end  is  a  buckskin  socket  attaching  a  beaded 
flap  with  long  fringes  of  beads  and  plain  buckskin.  Attributed  to  the 
Hunkpapa  Sioux. 

H:  6Y'  W:  2^'  L:  16J''  mai/hf:  22/7199 

254.  Pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  early  19th  century.  A  small  specimen,  but 
well  made  in  the  style  of  the  opening  years  of  the  century  except  for  the 
straight-sided  bowl.  The  eye  is  round.  The  haft  is  inlaid  with  silver  dia- 
monds, and  there  is  a  pewter  mouthpiece.  Attributed  to  the  Chippewa. 

H:  5''  W:  ir  L:  Ml"  mai/hf:  3/4645 

255.  Pewter  pipe  tomahawk,  early  19th  century.  Another  small  specimen, 
but  very  nicely  made  with  knurled  moldings  and  incised  diamond  deco- 
rations. The  bowl  has  been  bent  backward  slightly.  The  eye  is  round. 
The  haft  is  plain  and  the  mouthpiece,  probably  originally  of  pewter,  is 
now  missing.  The  wire  wrapped  around  the  haft  and  head  is  modern, 
apparently  designed  to  prevent  the  loss  of  the  head.  Attributed  to  the 
Fox  in  Iowa. 

H:  5i''  W:  if  L:  13''  mai/hf:  5/3708 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  SPONTOON  BLADES  I3I 

5.  Silver  Heads 

256.  Pipe  tomahawk  presented  to  Tom  Hill  in  1850.  This  is  the  only  silver 
or  silver-plated  tomahawk  that  has  been  observed  in  the  course  of  the 
present  study.  It  was  impossible  to  determine  which  this  is  without  scratch- 
ing the  specimen,  which  the  museum  was  reluctant  to  do.  If  plate,  it  is 
extremely  thick  and  well  applied.  No  indication  of  any  base  metal  could  be 
detected,  even  on  corners  and  edges.  A  strong  magnet  gave  no  reaction, 
removing  the  possibility  of  any  ferrous  metal  being  involved.  The  piece  is 
well  made,  with  a  high  oval  eye.  The  bowl  is  tall  and  flares  slightly  toward 
the  top.  There  is  no  real  neck,  but  a  short  area  below  the  bottom  molding 
conveys  this  impression.  The  head  is  heavily  engraved.  The  obverse  side 
bears  a  sunburst  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  eye  with  the  date  1850  (ap- 
parently by  a  different  hand)  beneath.  On  the  blade  is  "TOM  HILL  /  from  / 
P.  B.  Reading,"  two  clasped  hands  and  "Peace  (Ss  Friendship."  The  maker's 
name,  W.  A.  Woodruff,  is  stamped  near  the  base.  On  the  reverse  side  there 
is  an  eagle  with  the  U.  S.  shield,  a  crescent  moon,  stars,  and  a  design  com- 
posed of  a  percussion  gun,  tomahawk,  powder  horn,  and  bow  and  arrow. 
The  haft  is  walnut  with  a  silver  fore-end  cap  and  mouthpiece  and  a  wavy 
silver  inlay  along  both  sides.  Hill  was  a  Delaware  Indian  who  went  West  in 
the  1840's;  he  was  with  General  Fremont  in  his  fight  with  the  native  Cali- 
fornians  in  the  Salinas  Valley  in  1847  and  was  sent  to  Monterey  for  help.  In 
that  fight  he  lost  his  tomahawk,  and  Major  Reading  of  Fremont's  party  had 
this  one  made  as  a  present. 

H:  ^\"  W:  3f''  L:  18''  Smithsonian  Institution 

usnm:  362064 

6.  Stone  Heads 

257.  Sandstone  pipe  tomahawk,  late  19th  century.  A  copy  of  a  late  speci- 
men in  soft  sandstone,  found  in  Indiana.  The  eye  is  round  and  does  not  pass 
all  the  way  through  the  head. 

H:  5|"  W:  2|"  mai/hf:  21/6004 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  SPONTOON  BLADES 
I.  Iron  or  Steel  Heads 

258.  Early  spontoon  pipe  tomahawk  without  basal  processes,  probably 
second  half  of  the  i8th  century  and  of  French  origin.  The  eye  is  teardrop 
and  ample  for  a  heavy  haft,  typical  of  this  period.  Originally  the  blade 
terminated  in  a  point,  probably  turned  slightly  to  the  rear.  Since  this  is 
now  missing,  measurements  are  given  for  the  remaining  portion.  Provenience 
unknown. 

H:  6|"  W:  if"  William  O.  Sweet  collection 

259.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1750-1780).  Another  of  the  early 
forms  with  ample  teardrop  eye  and  finely  formed  bowl.  It  was  found  in 
Michigan  and  is  undoubtedly  of  French  origin.  This  specimen  has  the  basal 
processes  which  are  commonly  found  on  the  spontoon  blades.  The  neck  was 
originally  faceted.  The  point  curves  slightly  to  the  rear. 

H:  %Y'  W:  i\"  William  O.  Sweet  collection 

9* 


132  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

260.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 750-1 780).  Similar  to  the  preceding 
two  specimens,  but  in  better  condition.  The  eye  is  large  and  oval  with 
moldings  above  and  below.  The  bowl  is  slightly  irregular.  The  blade  has  lost 
part  of  one  of  the  basal  processes,  and  has  been  ground  down  considerably 
from  its  original  shape.  Found  in  Ohio,  it  is  again  probably  French  in 
origin. 

H:  gl''  W:  i|"  mai/hf:  21/2489 

261.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  The  similarity  between 
this  and  the  Plains  Indian  form  with  an  conventional  blade  can  readily  be 
recognized.  The  tall,  slightly  barrel-shaped  bowl  with  the  point  of  its  base 
molding  extending  almost  to  the  median  ridge  in  the  eye  area,  and  the 
ribbed  moldings  are  all  typical  of  the  era.  In  this  specimen  the  base  moldings 
are  curled  strongly  around  until  the  free  ends  touch  the  base  of  the  blade, 
and  there  is  a  little  scratchwork  engraving.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  haft  is 
studded  with  brass  tacks  and  may  well  be  later  than  the  head.  It  is  not 
pierced,  so  that  the  piece  cannot  be  smoked.  At  the  butt  end  are  tied  two 
long  strips  of  fur,  each  with  a  beaded  band  two-thirds  of  the  way  towards 
its  tip.  Attributed  to  the  Comanche. 

H:  7|"  W:  i^'  L:  15^''  mai/hf:  2/4422 

262.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 850-1 880).  This  specimen  belongs  to 
the  same  group  as  No.  261.  It  differs,  however,  in  having  a  bowl  inlaid  with 
two  narrow  copper  bands  and  a  blade  that  is  finely  forged  with  a  strong 
median  ridge  running  from  just  below  the  basal  processes  to  the  point. 
There  is  also  a  sunken  band  running  across  the  outside  of  the  eye  where  the 
median  ridge  would  normally  be.  The  eye  itself  is  oval.  The  haft  has  two 
deep  scallops  cut  from  its  lower  edge  and  has  incised  designs  of  a  cross 
and  leaves.  Tribe  unknown. 

H:  7^'  W:  if"  L:  igf"  mai/hf:  22/7206 

263.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  second  half  of  the  i8th  century.  The  head 
is  excavated,  but  the  haft  is  quite  modern.  The  bowl  appears  to  have  been 
faceted  originally.  The  eye  is  large  and  of  the  teardrop  form.  The  basal 
processes  are  rudimentary,  but  may  at  one  time  have  been  larger.  Attri- 
buted to  the  Winnebago. 

H:  8|"  W:  i^''  L:  18"  mai/hf:  20/4914 

264.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1800-1810).  The  eye  is  teardrop  and. 
large.  The  bowl  is  slightly  smaller  and  taller  than  on  the  earlier  specimens. 
The  blade  is  rather  crudely  forged,  and  the  forward  process  is  bent  and  its 
end  broken.  The  haft  is  straight  sided  with  one  silver  band,  flaring  to  an 
oval  medallion  on  top.  Attributed  to  the  Seneca. 

H:  9i"  W:  if"  L:  14^''  mai/hf:  15/8356 

265.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  first  half  of  the  19th  century.  A  crude 
forging  with  a  diminutive  blade  and  "processes"  that  are  really  pierced 
lobes.  The  eye  is  large  and  oval.  The  haft  is  apparently  a  replacement,  but 
retains  the  original  lead  mouthpiece.  Attributed  to  the  Choctaw. 

H:  6^"  W:  I"  L:  15 J"  mai/hf:  7321 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  SPONTOON  BLADES  I33 

266.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1825-1850).  The  eye  is  teardrop  and 
relatively  ample,  but  the  bowl  is  tall,  and  the  moldings  on  the  sides  of  the 
eye  area  suggest  those  popular  at  mid-century.  There  are  no  basal  processes. 
The  haft  is  absolutely  plain.  Attributed  to  the  Iroquois. 

H:  61"  W:  i^''  L:  15I"  mai/hf:  19/5088 

267.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  late  19th  century.  The  bowl  of  this  large 
specimen  is  plain  except  for  a  single  groove  near  the  center.  The  eye  is 
teardrop,  and  the  outer  surface  reflects  this  shape.  The  blade  is  thin,  without 
basal  processes,  and  is  pierced  with  a  heart.  The  haft  is  file  branded  and 
studded  with  a  few  brass  tacks  near  the  head.  At  the  mouth  end  there  is  a 
hole  with  a  buckskin  thong  tied  through  it,  and  just  ahead  of  this  a  long 
strip  of  light  brown  fur  is  tied  to  the  haft.  A  green  ribbon  is  tied  around  the 
neck  of  the  pipe  bowl.  Attributed  to  the  Crow. 

H:  10 J"  W:  2^'  L:  23^''  mai/hf:  11/5089 

268.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 870-1 890).  A  small  and  crude  speci- 
men of  a  type  often  called  "Minnewauken"  in  the  past.  The  characteristic 
of  this  form  is  the  kite-shaped  blade  without  basal  processes.  In  this  in- 
stance the  blade  is  stamped  with  crescents,  stars  and  leaves;  the  point  is 
broken  off.  The  bowl  is  excessively  tall  in  proportion  to  its  height.  The  haft 
is  tall  and  thin  with  six  notches  cut  in  the  lower  edge  near  the  mouthpiece 
and  some  slight  scrolling  along  the  top  edge  just  above  them.  Attributed  to 
the  Nez  Perce. 

H:  7"  W:  i^"  L:  i6|"  mai/hf:  20/4923 

269.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  Another  tall  specimen  of 
the  so-called  Plains  Indian  type.  The  bowl  and  eye  are  well  formed  with  a 
beaded  molding  along  the  median  ridge.  The  eye  itself  is  a  pointed  ellipse. 
The  basal  processes  curve  sharply  upward,  and  their  free  ends  touch  the 
blade.  Below,  the  blade  is  pierced  with  a  heart,  and  punched  dots  form  a 
border  around  the  opening.  The  haft  is  plain  except  for  a  few  tacks  in  the 
fore  end.  Attributed  to  the  Osage. 

H:  10"  W:  2y  L:  19^''  mai/hf:  10/2890 

270.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  Also  in  the  Plains  Indian 
pattern,  this  specimen  has  an  unusual  bowl  as  far  as  spontoon  pipes  are 
concerned.  It  is  tall,  tapering  inward  toward  the  top  with  multiple  narrow 
moldings.  The  basal  processes  curve  sharply  upward,  and  originally  prob- 
ably stopped  just  short  of  touching  the  blade  with  their  free  ends.  The  blade 
is  pierced  with  a  heart,  and  there  are  brass  inlays  consisting  of  a  stylized 
tree,  crescent  moon,  and  stars  on  the  obverse,  and  the  same  elements  plus 
the  letters  CK  on  the  reverse.  The  haft  is  plain  except  for  a  pewter  headband 
and  mouthpiece.  Attributed  to  the  Sioux. 

H:  10''  W:  2|"  L:  16"  mai/hf:  22/7204 

271.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  This  is  the  classic  so- 
called  "Minnewauken"  form  with  the  kite-shaped  blade  almost  a  diamond. 
It  is  completely  undecorated,  but  there  is  a  slight  median  ridge  running 
down  the  blade.  The  eye  is  a  pointed  ellipse,  and  there  is  no  median  ridge 
on  the  outside.  The  haft  is  absolutely  plain.  Provenience  unknown. 

H:  10''  W:  2I"  L:  13!''  mai/hf:  22/7292 


134  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

272.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1890-1910).  This  large  specimen  has 
several  unusual  features.  The  bowl  is  thick  and  sits  on  a  high  base.  Around 
its  center  runs  a  broad  knurled  band,  and  the  base  itself  is  reeded  horizontal- 
ly. Most  unusual,  however,  is  the  blade  shape  consisting  of  a  diamond  and 
then  a  barbed  point.  The  eye  is  diamond  shaped,  and  there  is  a  sharp 
median  ridge  on  the  outside.  The  entire  head  is  forged  of  soft  iron.  The  haft 
is  file  branded  and  studded  with  brass  tacks.  It  has  been  varnished.  From 
a  hole  near  the  mouth  end  dangles  a  horsehair  tassel  with  a  beaded  band  at 
its  base.  Attributed  to  the  Kiowa. 

H:  10^''  W:  il"  L:  20^"  mai/hf:  19/7964 

273.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  A  crude  specimen  of  the 
Plains  type  with  various  lines  askew  and  numerous  cracks  and  flaws  in  the 
metal.  The  bowl  and  the  pointed  ellipse  eye  with  a  median  ridge  on  the 
outside  conform  in  all  respects  to  the  type.  The  rear  basal  process  of  the 
blade  retains  its  original  curve;  the  forward  one  has  been  bent  more  acutely. 
A  single  circular  hole  pierces  the  blade  just  above  its  widest  point.  The  haft 
is  plain.  Attributed  to  the  Sauk  and  Fox. 

H:  gl"  W:  2"  L:  i8f''  mai/hf:  18/8270 

274.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 870-1900).  A  simply-forged  speci- 
men with  the  basal  processes  well  down  the  blade,  instead  of  almost  directly 
at  the  base  in  the  more  usual  fashion.  The  eye  is  oval.  The  bowl  is  lower  and 
of  larger  diameter  than  most  pipes  of  the  period,  and  the  blade  is  a  thin  sheet 
of  iron.  The  haft  is  plain  except  for  file  branding.  Attributed  to  the  Cheyenne. 
H:  7|''  W:  i\"  L:  18"  mai/hf:  22/7223 

275.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 880-1900).  A  crudely-made  late 
specimen.  The  blade  is  a  separate  thin  piece  of  iron  welded  between  the 
two  straps  which  form  the  eye.  The  eye  itself  is  round.  The  bowl  is  ex- 
ceptionally tall  with  straight  sides  and  a  flare  outwards.  The  haft  is  diamond 
shaped  in  section  and  is  file  branded  in  a  pattern  of  spiral  stripes.  The  butt 
end  is  sheathed  in  a  sleeve  of  buckskin  with  beaded  decoration  which  at- 
taches a  beaded  flap,  fringe,  and  brass  bells.  Attributed  to  the  Blackfoot. 
H:  jY'  W:  if"  L:  20^''  mai/hf:  20/4912 

276.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 860-1 880).  This  again  is  a  classic  ex- 
ample of  the  so-called  "Minnewauken"  blade.  It  is  well  but  simply  made 
with  a  straight-sided  bowl  and  oval  eye,  and  the  kite-shaped  blade  without 
processes  that  characterizes  the  style.  In  this  instance  the  blade  has  been 
stamped  with  a  series  of  crescents  and  stars,  and  the  edges  of  the  eye  have 
been  filed  to  form  a  cusped  border.  The  first  third  of  the  haft  is  wrapped 
with  cord,  and  a  fringe  of  buckskin  is  tied  along  the  entire  lower  edge. 
Attributed  to  the  Sauk  and  Fox. 

H:  9l"  W:  2^'  L:  17^''  mai/hf:  5/473 

277.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1880-1900).  The  pipe  bowl  has  been 
broken  off.  The  eye  is  round,  and  the  blade  is  a  thin  sheet  of  iron  with  very- 
long  basal  processes  of  almost  fishhook  shape,  to  judge  by  the  one  which 
survives.  The  blade  is  pierced  with  three  circular  holes  arranged  as  a 
triangle,  and  there  are  punched  dots  all  over  the  surface.  The  haft,  which 
seems  even  more  recent,  is  completely  wrapped  in  what  appears  to  be  rabbit 
fur  with  three  long  strips  pendant.  Attributed  to  the  Crow  in  Montana. 

H:  d>i"  W:  2"  L:  23"  mai/hf:  12/6401 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  SPONTOON  BLADES  I35 

278.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1900).  A  very  crude  specimen  made 
of  three  pieces  of  iron  brazed  together.  These  comprise  a  simple  tube  for  the 
bowl,  a  strap  for  the  eye,  and  a  sheet  for  the  blade.  It  could  not  possibly  be 
used  for  anything  except  decoration.  The  eye  is  teardrop.  The  haft  seems 
even  more  recent  than  the  head ;  it  is  carved  with  a  series  of  grooves  into 
which  blue  paint  has  been  rubbed.  Near  the  mouth  end  is  a  large  tuft  of 
horsehair  and  lengths  of  red,  purple,  and  green  cloth.  Attributed  to  the 
Chippewa. 

H:  7"  W:  2^"  L:  20"  mai/hf:  15/2978 

279.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  A  well-made  specimen 
with  a  faceted  pipe  bowl  that  unscrews.  The  eye  is  teardrop.  There  are  no 
true  basal  processes,  but  projections  just  below  the  joint  of  the  eye  suggest 
rudimentary  vestiges.  The  blade  is  pierced  with  four  circular  holes,  and  a 
series  of  engraved  arcs  and  punched  dots  complete  the  decoration.  Attributed 
to  the  Nez  Perce. 

H:  10''  W:  2f"  mai/hf:  14/7358 

280.  Late  spontoon  pipe  tomahawk  with  leaf-shaped  blade.  The  bowl  is  a 
simple  tube,  straight  sided  with  a  simple  flaring  molding  at  the  top.  The  eye 
is  almost  round.  An  X  is  engraved  on  the  outside  of  the  eye,  and  a  series  of 
punched  dots  and  engraved  lines  form  a  stilized  tree  on  the  blade.  Attributed 
to  the  Chippewa. 

H:  7I"  W:  2f  mai/hf:  19/4989 

281.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  mid-i9th  century.  An  unusual  specimen 
in  that  the  strap  which  forms  the  eye  is  exceptionally  narrow  and  thick, 
directly  opposite  from  the  more  common  proportion.  The  bowl  is  tall  with  a 
double  molding  at  the  top,  and  the  blade  is  small  but  well  formed.  The  eye 
itself  is  oval.  The  haft  is  file  branded  and  the  mouthpiece  is  lead.  Attributed 
to  the  Sauk  and  Fox. 

H:  7I"  W:  if"  L:  14I"  mai/hf:  20/1990 

282.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 880-1900).  One  of  the  very  long- 
hafted  types  found  at  the  very  end  of  the  19th  century.  The  head  is  proba- 
bly a  trifle  earlier  than  the  haft.  The  eye  is  diamond  shaped  and  there  is  the 
external  median  ridge  which  is  normal  for  this  period.  The  bowl  is  faceted. 
The  blade  is  leaf  shaped  with  only  rudimentary  basal  processes,  and  there 
is  an  elliptical  copper  inlay  in  the  center.  The  haft  is  wrapped  tightly  in 
rawhide  for  most  of  its  length.  A  braided  thong  with  hair  tassel  is  looped 
around  the  haft  near  the  head,  and  another  heavier  one  passes  through  a 
hole  at  the  butt  end.  The  haft  is  not  pierced  and  cannot  be  smoked.  It  was 
collected  from  a  Plains  Indian;  the  specific  tribe  is  not  known. 

H:  7f"  W:  2J"  L:  32"  Smithsonian  Institution 

usnm:  361478 

283.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1900).  A  recent  forging  with  kite- 
shaped  blade,  rectangular  eye,  and  a  flat  circular  face  on  the  outside  of  the 
eye.  In  this  instance  the  haft  is  also  one  of  the  extremely  long,  unpierced 
variety.  In  the  fore  end  there  is  a  screw  with  a  short  length  of  ribbon  in 
place  of  the  usual  plug.  The  haft  is  wrapped  in  what  appears  to  be  rabbit  fur 
for  a  short  length  just  behind  the  head.  Then  follows  a  long  section  wrapped 


136  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

in  copper  wire  with  a  section  of  light  and  dark  blue  and  yellow  beads  in  the 
center.  The  butt  end  is  covered  with  a  sleeve  of  red  and  black  wool  fag- 
goting with  loose  ends  of  the  yarn  for  a  tassel.  From  the  Piegan  Blackfoot 
of  Montana. 

H:  6f''  W:  2^"  L:  29"  Smithsonian  Institution 

usnm:  153578 

284.  Unique  spontoon  pipe  tomahawk  with  buffalo-head  blade,  {ca.  1880- 
1900).  In  this  highly  imaginative  specimen  the  basal  processes  have  been 
converted  to  horns  and  the  blade  itself  shaped  to  resemble  a  buffalo's  head 
with  a  short  straight  beveled  edge  at  the  bottom.  Four  circular  holes  have 
been  drilled  to  simulate  the  eyes  and  nostrils.  The  eye  is  rectangular  both 
inside  and  out,  and  the  neckless  bowl  expands  slightly  to  the  top  with  a 
simple  molding.  The  haft  is  undecorated.  It  is  attributed  to  the  Assiniboin. 
H:  6^'  W:  i^''  L:  20J"  mai/hf:  11/8046 

285.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk  with  pick  blade,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  In  this 
instance  the  blade  actually  seems  to  have  been  made  from  a  pick  with  the 
bowl  brazed  on.  The  haft  is  plain  except  for  file  branding.  Attributed  to 
the  Sioux. 

H:  10"  W:  f"  L:  22"  mai/hf:  3/6822 

286.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk  with  pick  blade,  early  19th  century.  In 
this  specimen  the  blade  seems  to  have  been  intended  for  the  purpose,  and 
not  converted  as  was  the  previous  example.  The  eye  is  round.  The  bowl  is 
octagonal,  and  of  the  low,  ample  proportions  typical  in  such  an  early  piece. 
It  could  possibly  be  late  i8th  century,  but  more  probably  dates  from 
1 800-1 820.  The  provenience  is  not  known. 

H:  8"  W:  f"  mai/hf:  22/7329 

287.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1860-1880).  The  bowl  is  typical  of  the 
Plains  Indian  form  of  the  period.  The  eye  is  diamond  shaped  with  a  high 
median  ridge  on  the  outside  opposite  the  lateral  points  of  the  diamond,  and 
there  are  crisply  filed  moldings  where  the  eye  joins  the  blade.  The  lobes, 
which  have  replaced  the  basal  processes,  are  pierced  with  circular  holes. 
The  haft,  which  is  undecorated,  has  a  strong  ridge  on  each  side  and  a  separate 
mouthpiece  made  of  a  brass  cartridge  case.  This  tomahawk  belonged  to 
Kicking  Bird  (Teneangapote),  a  famed  Kiowa  war  leader,  who  was  active 
in  Oklahoma  and  Texas  prior  to  his  death  in  1875.  It  was  collected  in  1874 
by  Thomas  C.  Battey,  a  trader  at  Fort  Sill,  Oklahoma. 

H:  iii"  W:  2f''  L:  27!"  mai/hf:  23/898 


2.  Brass  Heads 

288.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 870-1 890).  The  bowl  is  approaching 
the  ungainly  attenuated  tulip  shape  sometimes  encountered  on  specimens 
made  after  1900.  The  eye  is  diamond  shaped  with  a  median  ridge  on  the 
outside.  The  basal  processes  of  the  blade  curve  downward  in  the  reverse  of 
the  more  usual  manner.  The  haft  is  plain  with  a  slight  double  curve  remini- 
scent of  the  standard  axe  of  the  period.  Attributed  to  the  Chippewa. 
H:  9''  W:  2''  L:  20^"  mai/hf:  19/5096 


PIPE  TOMAHAWKS  WITH  SPONTOON  BLADES  I37 

289.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1860-1880).  Here  the  bowl  and  eye 
pattern  of  the  typical  Plains  Indian  form  are  readily  recognizable.  The 
brass  casting  is  good,  and  the  piece  has  been  well  finished.  The  basal 
processes  curve  downward  and  are  well  developed.  Beneath  them  the  blade 
is  pierced  with  a  gentle  arc  above  a  heart.  The  haft  is  file  branded  in  a  spiral 
pattern.  For  slightly  over  half  its  length  it  is  wrapped  in  rawhide.  Two 
narrow  beaded  bands  remain  around  this  portion;  at  one  time  there  may 
have  been  a  third.  Attributed  to  the  Oglala  Sioux. 

H:  9F  W:  2''  L:  16^'  mai/hf:  21/2547 

290.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  An  exceptionally  heavy 
and  well-made  specimen.  Once  again  the  bowl  and  eye  patterns  are  those 
typical  of  the  Plains  Indian  form  with  the  addition  of  knurled  bands 
around  the  bowl  and  a  sunken  panel  in  place  of  the  median  ridge  across  the 
outside  of  the  eye.  The  eye  itself  is  oval.  The  haft  is  file  branded  and  studded 
along  its  upper  edge  with  brass  tacks  in  a  single  line.  Attributed  to  the 
Caddo  in  Oklahoma. 

H:  9f''  W:  i^''  L:  18"  mai/hf:  5/64 

291.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  Generally  similar  to 
No.  292  but  better  made  and  more  vigorous  in  its  design.  The  bowl  is  seven- 
sided  with  cabled  moldings  at  top  and  bottom.  The  eye  is  a  pointed  ellipse. 
The  lobes  which  have  taken  the  place  of  basal  processes  are  at  least  pierced 
to  carry  on  the  effect  of  curved  arms.  The  haft  is  wrapped  for  almost  its 
entire  length  in  brass  wire.  The  remaining  few  inches  are  studded  with  brass 
tacks,  and  two  buckskin  thongs  with  fringe  are  looped  around.  Attributed 
to  the  Kainah  Blackfoot. 

H:  8"  W:  2''  L:  i9f"  mai/hf:  6979 

292.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 870-1 890).  The  general  character- 
istics of  the  Plains  Indian  form  can  be  recognized  in  the  bowl  and  eye  area, 
but  poorly  executed  and  decadent  in  feeling.  The  eye  is  actually  a  teardrop. 
The  basal  processes  have  given  way  to  lobes.  The  haft  is  plain  except  for 
one  feather  tied  with  a  rawhide  thong  to  a  hole  in  the  lower  edge  of  the  haft. 
Attributed  to  the  Santee  Sioux, 

H:  9|''  W:  2^'  L:  2i|''  ■  mai/hf:  20/4908 

293.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1880-1910).  A  very  large,  late  form 
which  even  more  strikingly  resembles  the  spontoon  than  most  of  those 
made  in  years  when  the  spontoon  was  still  used.  The  bowl  is  of  the  typical 
Plains  pattern.  The  eye  is  diamond  shaped.  The  basal  processes  are  broad 
and  curve  down  only  slightly,  while  the  blade  continues  to  a  blunt  point. 
Incised  scrolling  decoration  is  cast  into  it.  Provenience  unknown. 

H:  11^''  W:  2"  William  O.  Sweet  collection 


3.  Pewter  Heads 

294.  Recent  spontoon  pipe  tomahawk;  an  early  20th  century  specimen. 
The  head  is  cast  with  a  flat  blade  one-quarter  inch  thick.  It  is  inlaid  with 
catlinite  and  slate.  The  eye  itself  is  oval,  but  the  outside  is  rectangular. 
The  haft  is  made  from  a  board  and  is  studded  with  brass  tacks.  Attributed 
to  the  Sisseton  Sioux. 

H:  iij"  W:  i|''  L:  26^"  mai/hf:  14/2914 


138  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

295.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1870).  A  crude  casting  with  an  ex- 
ceptionally tall  bowl  foreshadowing  the  later  tulip  shape.  The  eye  is  a 
pointed  ellipse  with  a  median  ridge  on  the  outside.  The  pointed  base 
molding  of  the  bowl  terminates  right  at  the  ridge,  as  is  typical  of  the  most 
usual  Plains  Indian  form.  The  basal  processes  are  long  and  thin  and  curl 
sharply  around  on  themselves ;  below  them  the  blade  is  kite  shaped  with  a 
slight  median  ridge.  In  all  specimens  of  this  form  that  have  been  examined, 
the  haft  is  cut  down  to  enter  the  eye  so  that  this  unusual  procedure  is  to  be 
expected.  The  haft  is  file  branded  and  studded  with  brass  tacks  in  bands 
and  on  the  fore  end.  This  specimen  was  collected  in  1870,  at  which  time  it 
must  have  been  almost  new.  Attributed  to  the  Miami. 

H:  11"  W:  2f"L:  22^"  mai/hf:  14/5984 

296.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1890-1910).  A  late  casting  with  a  flat, 
kite-shaped  blade  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick.  The  eye  is  oval.  The 
bowl  is  poorly  formed.  There  is  a  cloth  gasket  around  the  haft  inside  the  eye. 
The  haft  is  straight  and  plain.  Attributed  to  the  Winnebago. 

H:  9|"  W:  2f"  L:  23"  mai/hf:  20/4917 


297.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 880-1900).  The  eye  is  rectangular. 
The  neckless  bowl  flares  towards  the  top  with  straight  sides.  Brass  tacks 
have  been  driven  into  the  center  of  the  diamond-shaped  blade  from  both 
sides,  leaving  the  heads  to  form  bosses.  There  is  also  a  faint  scratch  engraving 
of  a  buffalo  head  on  the  reverse  side.  The  haft  is  wrapped  with  strips  of  cloth 
and  two  beaded  bands,  and  there  is  one  band  of  brass  tacks.  Attributed  to 
the  Santee  Sioux. 

H:  6^'  W:  if'  L:  17^"  mai/hf:  20/4569 


298.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1890-1910).  The  wide  bowl  with  top 
and  bottom  moldings  is  better  formed  than  most  in  this  period.  The  eye  is 
teardrop,  though  there  is  a  median  ridge  on  the  outside.  The  blade  has  file 
nicks  for  decoration  along  the  top  edges,  and  there  are  geometrical  designs 
in  scratch  engraving.  The  haft  narrows  to  enter  the  eye.  A  cloth  gasket  is 
wrapped  around  it.  The  eye  is  diamond  shaped  in  section  with  serrated  top 
and  bottom  edges.  Running  chevrons  are  cut  into  the  upper  surfaces,  and  a 
short  line  of  brass  tacks  has  been  driven  in  near  the  head.  Attributed  to  the 
Chippewa. 

H:  6''  W:  2Y'  L:  i6i"  mai/hf:  20/9755 


4.  Stone  Heads 

299.  Spontoon  pipe  tomahawk,  {ca.  1 860-1 880).  This  unique  example  is 
finely  carved  of  black  slate,  perfectly  copying  the  metal  object  of  the  period. 
It  is  inlaid  with  pewter  and  catlinite  in  designs  comprising  a  four-pointed 
star,  a  square  enclosing  a  cross,  a  bird,  and  a  diamond.  The  eye  is  oval.  At- 
tributed to  the  Nez  Perce. 

H:  6|''  W:  i^"  mai/hf:  19/6655 


139 

TOMAHAWKS  AND  HATCHETS  USED  BY  WHITE  MEN 

300.  Spiked  tomahawk  used  by  a  colonist  {ca.  1 750-1 775).  It  is  forged  in 
the  manner  usual  for  such  axes.  The  eye  is  oval  and  there  are  well-developed 
ears.  The  spike  is  rectangular  in  section,  and  its  point  has  been  flattened 
through  striking  some  hard  object.  The  haft  is  original.  Found  in  an  old 
house  in  Brattleboro,  Vermont. 

H:  ^l"  W:  2''  L:  12^''  Ben  F.  Huhhell  collection 

301.  Pipe  tomahawk,  [ca.  1 776-1 781).  This  specimen  is  a  most  interesting 
document.  Undoubtedly  made  for  use  by  a  white  colonist  during  the 
American  Revolution  or  very  shortly  thereafter,  it  is  one  more  indication  of 
the  fact  that  pipe  tomahawks  were  used  by  whites  as  well  as  by  Indians. 
The  pipe  bowl  is  now  missing.  The  eye  is  round.  The  poll  is  flat  with  a  hole 
where  the  pipe  bowl  was  riveted  and  welded  in  place.  The  moldings  above 
and  below  the  eye  are  well  developed,  and  the  blade  is  gracefully  shaped 
with  a  chamfer  along  the  rear  line.  There  is  a  steel  edge.  But  of  paramount 
interest  are  the  inscriptions  inlaid  in  brass.  On  the  obverse  side  appears 
"I-G  /  AME  /  RICA  /  LIBE  /  RTI  1776."  The  date  may  possibly  be  1775, 
but  1776  seems  more  likely  in  view  of  the  fact  that  liberty  did  not  become 
a  popular  cause  until  the  signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  A 
complete  transliteration  would  be  In  God  American  Liberty  1776.  The  date 
need  not  be  that  of  the  manufacture  of  the  hatchet,  but  its  form  and  the 
style  of  the  inscription  would  indicate  that  it  was  made  during  the  war.  The 
haft  is  modern.  Collected  in  Massachusetts. 

H:  5|''  W:  i^"  L:  13!"  mai/hf:  22/7239 

302.  Tomahawk  with  hammer  poll  bearing  US  mark,  late  i8th  century. 
Compare  this  example  with  No.  98,  which  appears  identical  except  that  in 
this  instance  the  hammer  is  octagonal  in  section  and  heavily  mushroomed 
from  use.  Once  again  the  cartouche  bearing  the  maker's  name  is  illegible, 
but  the  U.  S.  mark  is  strong  and  clear.  In  all  probability  this  axe  was  issued 
to  troops  during  or  shortly  after  the  Revolution.  Provenience  unknown. 
H:5i^'W:2"  Herb  Glass  collection 

303.  Superbly  made  pipe  tomahawk  [ca.  1800-1815).  This  is  probably  the 
finest  head  encountered  during  the  course  of  the  present  study.  The  bowl  is 
finely  faceted  with  well-developed  moldings.  There  is  a  steel  edge,  and  the 
whole  of  the  head  is  enhanced  with  engraving  and  inlays  of  gold  and  silver. 
In  addition,  the  background  appears  to  have  been  russeted  to  give  greater 
contrast  to  the  inlays.  On  the  obverse  side  these  decorations  include  a  deer 
fleeing  from  a  hunter  and  his  dog  as  the  hunter  aims  a  flintlock.  The 
background  is  a  stylized  tree  with  a  distelfink,  a  typically  Pennsylvania 
Dutch  bird,  perched  above  a  cartouche  bearing  the  name  "F.  HOFF."  Hoff 
was  a  blacksmith  in  Lancaster  County,  Pennsylvania,  ca.  1800-1815.  Below 
the  scene,  along  the  edge,  is  inscribed  "American  Horse"  in  script.  The 
reverse  side  bears  an  American  eagle  with  shield  and  a  trophy  of  arms  and 
flags.  Although  the  general  form  of  the  blade  is  of  a  type  which  would 
normally  be  dated  slightly  later,  the  style  of  decoration,  plus  the  name  of 
the  maker  seem  to  indicate  the  earlier  period.  Exact  dimensions  are  not 
available.  Provenience  is  unknown.  Although  there  was  a  famous  Indian 
chief  named  American  Horse  (1825  ?-i875),  he  was  not  connected  with  this 
specimen. 

Clem  Caldwell  collection 


140  AMERICAN    INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

304.  Unique  tomahawk  with  eagle  poll,  {ca.  1 810-1830).  The  interesting 
eagle  poll  on  this  specimen  is  a  fine  forging  in  a  graceful  adaptation  of  the 
older  spiked  form.  The  eye  is  oval  with  serrated  edges  around  the  outside. 
Across  the  center  is  engraved  the  name  "J As  M^TEAR",  apparently  the 
owner.  The  blade  is  simple  with  relatively  straight  lines  and  only  a  slight 
flare  to  the  rear.  The  provenience  is  not  known. 

H:  sy  W:  4!"  Henry  Ford  Museum:  62.32 

305.  Tomahawk  with  hammer  poll  presented  to  Davy  Crockett;  an  inter- 
esting specimen  of  highly  polished  steel.  The  hammer  flares  slightly  toward 
the  top  and  is  octagonal  in  section.  The  eye  is  a  pointed  ellipse,  but  the 
outside  has  been  forged  to  present  a  flat  circular  surface  on  each  side.  The 
blade  flares  symmetrically  in  concave  arcs.  Across  the  reverse  side  is  en- 
graved the  name  Crockett  in  script,  and  on  the  obverse  Go  Ahead. The  haft  is 
smooth,  flaring  slightly  toward  the  mouth  end  where  it  diminishes  suddenly 
and  enters  a  carved  ivory  mouthpiece  with  a  brass  ferrule  at  the  joint.  This 
hatchet  was  presented  to  Davy  Crockett  by  "The  Young  Men  of  Phila- 
delphia" in  1834  or  1835. 

H:  5|"  W:  4f"  L:  i6f"  Smithsonian  Institution 

usnm:  359628 

306.  U.  S.  Army  hatchet,  19th  century.  Following  in  the  tradition  of  the 
fully  developed  American  hatchet  of  the  late  i8th  century  illustrated  as 
No.  40,  hand  axes  of  this  form  were  issued  by  the  Army  throughout  almost 
the  entire  19th  century.  They  seem  to  have  been  standard  by  the  time  of 
the  War  of  181 2  and  continued  in  use  until  the  ears  disappeared  about 
the  end  of  the  century.  The  present  specimen  was  excavated  on  the  Civil 
War  battlefield  of  Brandy  Station,  Virginia.  The  eye  is  a  flat  ellipse, 
pointed  slightly  at  its  lower  end.  The  poll  is  thick  and  counter-balances 
the  blade  and  has  been  mushroomed  slightly  from  pounding.  There  is  a 
steel  edge. 

H:  4f"  W:  2f"  Author's  collection 

307.  U.  S.  Army  hatchet.  Civil  War  period.  In  addition  to  the  form  of 
hatchet  commonly  issued  by  the  Army  and  described  above.  Civil  War 
battlefields  also  yield  a  number  of  shingler's  hatchets  of  this  form.  The 
hammer  is  rectangular  in  section,  but  with  chamfered  corners  so  that  it  is 
almost  octagonal.  The  eye  is  a  long  slender  teardrop,  almost  a  pointed 
ellipse.  There  is  a  steel  edge,  and  a  nail-pulling  slot  is  cut  in  the  rear  line. 
H:  6 J"  W:  3^"  Author's  collection 

308.  British  boarding  axe,  {ca.  1 750-1 850).  The  head  is  forged  from  two 
pieces  of  iron  plus  a  steel  edge  in  the  usual  manner  for  a  spiked  axe.  Inter- 
esting additions  in  this  instance,  however,  are  the  two  straps  running  along 
the  haft  and  fastened  by  two  transverse  rivets.  The  eye  is  round  and  tapers 
slightly  from  back  to  front.  On  the  obverse  side  of  the  blade  appear  a 
cartouche  bearing  an  illegible  maker's  name,  the  broad  arrow  signifying 
government  ownership,  and  two  broad  arrows  struck  point  to  point  in- 
dicating that  the  piece  has  been  sold.  The  haft  has  been  shortened  an  in- 
determinate amount.  (Of  eight  identical  specimens  examined  during  this 
study,  all  have  been  cut  off  at  approximately  the  same  point.)  Both  head 
and  haft  are  painted  black. 

H:  8|''  W:  3^''  L:  22^''  Author's  collection 


TOMAHAWKS  AND  HATCHETS  USED  BY  WHITE  MEN  I4I 

309.  Boarding  axe,  probably  British,  {ca.  1800-1850).  This  specimen  bears 
many  similarities  to  the  preceding  one  in  the  method  of  forging  and  general 
shape  of  the  blade.  Differences  include  the  narrower,  slightly  curved  spike 
and  the  two  notches  in  the  rear  line  of  the  blade.  It  was  excavated  in  San 
Juan  County,  Washington,  and  undoubtedly  came  from  one  of  the  naval 
vessels  which  frequented  the  area. 

H:  7^"  W:  2^''  mai/hf:  4/5412 

310.  American  boarding  axe,  {ca.  1 800-1 850).  The  present  specimen  was 
found  in  an  Indian  burial  in  New  Jersey.  No  marks  are  visible,  but  identical 
specimens  bearing  U.S.  marks  have  been  found.  The  eye  is  round  and  tapers 
to  the  rear  in  the  normal  manner  for  picks  and  tomahawks.  There  are  no 
straps.  Characteristic  of  this  particular  form  is  the  right-angle  turn  of  the 
rear  line  of  the  blade  with  two  notches  along  the  top. 

H:  11^"  W:  3f"  mai/hf:  10/4993 

311.  American  boarding  axe,  {ca.  1 800-1 850).  Closely  related  to  the  previ- 
ous specimen,  this  axe  is  slightly  more  sophisticated.  The  spike  is  rectangu- 
lar in  section  and  at  one  time  had  a  point  with  chamfered  edges  which  has 
since  been  cut  off.  The  eye  is  round  and  tapers  to  the  rear.  The  blade  has 
two  notches  in  the  rear  line.  The  straps  are  separate  from  the  head,  passing 
through  the  eye  and  forming  a  convex  split  cover  for  the  fore  end.  On  the 
reverse  side  of  the  blade  is  stamped  "U.  S.  /  N.  Y,  W.  [Navy  Yard,  Wash- 
ington] J.  T.  [the  inspector's  initials]."  The  obverse  side  bears  a  much  later 
stamping  "ORD'CE  [Ordnance]  /  N.  Y.  N.  Y.  [Navy  Yard,  New  York]  / 
1852."  This  second  inscription  would  indicate  that  it  was  reinspected  and 
issued  from  New  York  at  that  date.  The  head  and  straps  are  painted  black. 
The  haft  is  round  with  a  flattened  ball  at  the  butt.  Other  axes  of  this  pat- 
tern are  known  with  slightly  different  hafts. 

H:  9^''  W:  2|"  L:  24"  Author's  collection 

312.  French  boarding  axe,  model  1833.  An  exceptionally  massive  speci- 
men with  heavy  spike,  diamond  shaped  in  cross  section.  The  eye  is  rec- 
tangular, and  the  straps  which  lie  along  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  haft  pass 
through  it  and  are  headed  on  the  fore  end.  They  are  fastened  together  by 
two  vertical  rivets  which  pass  through  the  haft.  On  the  reverse  side  is  a 
belt  hook  which  also  passes  through  the  eye  and  is  held  in  place  by  a  screw 
directly  behind  the  head.  The  blade  flares  symmetrically  in  concave  arcs 
and  is  stamped  on  both  sides  with  an  anchor.  Both  head  and  haft  are 
painted  black.  Although  this  axe  is  French,  many  specimens  are  found  in 
America,  and  the  present  specimen  was  actually  purchased  as  Civil  War 
surplus  at  the  Boston  Navy  Yard  late  in  the  last  century,  lending 
credence  to  the  fact  that  numbers  of  them  were  manufactured  for  use 
during  that  war. 

H:  9"  W:  4I"  L:  21^"  Author's  collection 

313.  American  boarding  axe.  This  model  is  a  heavy  shingler's  hatchet  with 
straps  along  the  haft.  Its  exact  date  of  adoption  is  not  known,  but  it  was 
used  during  the  Civil  War  and  thereafter  as  long  as  boarding  axes  were 
issued.  The  head  is  usually  made  of  cast  steel  with  a  hammer  which  flares 
slightly  toward  the  top  and  is  rectangular  in  section  with  rounded  comers. 
The  straps  are  fastened  by  two  transverse  rivets,  and  the  blade  has  two 


142  AMERICAN   INDIAN   TOMAHAWKS 

rectangular  slots  in  the  rear  line.   Some  specimens  are  stamped  "U.  S. 
NAVY"  on  the  blade.  The  present  specimen  is  stamped  "WARRANTED  / 
CAST  STEEL"  in  two  vertical  lines  on  the  reverse  of  the  hammer. 
H:  6|''  W:  4^"  L:  17^"  Author's  collection 

314.  Frog  for  Civil  War  boarding  axe.  Made  of  black  harness  leather  with 
a  loop  for  the  belt  and  a  strap  to  button  over  the  top  of  the  axe,  these  frogs 
provided  the  means  for  carrying  the  boarding  axe  into  action.  The  button 
for  the  strap  is  a  pointed  stud  of  brass,  and  there  is  a  gusset  at  the  back  of 
the  pocket  to  allow  for  the  flat  end  of  the  hammer.  On  the  front  portion  of 
the  pocket  is  stamped  a  pointed  ellipse  bearing  the  legend  "NAVY  YARD  / 
N.  Y.  /  1865"  plus  two  anchors.  The  period  following  the  "Y"  in  the  second 
line  is  actually  a  tiny  five-pointed  star.  Frogs  for  post-Civil  War  boarding 
axes  were  generally  similar  but  lacked  the  gusset  at  the  rear  of  the  pocket. 
The  brass  stud  also  was  round  headed  instead  of  pointed,  and  the  stamp 
consisted  of  a  generally  rectangular  cartouche  with  the  words  "U.  S.  N.  Y.  / 
BOSTON"  or  a  similar  Navy  Yard  without  date  or  anchors. 
H:  eV  W:  8"  Author's  collection 


PHOTOGRAPHS  OF  TOMAHAWKS 


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